UC-NRLF 


o/  POWER 


,        . 
Busines 


/'Jivm^i 

m 

^•fek^^.- 


M.A 


WIJBBARD, 


THE  COST  OF  POWER 


THE  COST  of  POWER 

A  Big  Business  Problem 

A  MANUAL  OF  VALUABLE  INFORMATION 
FOR  BUSINESS  EXECUTIVES 


By 
GERALD    B.    GOULD,    M.A. 

AND 

CARLETON  W.  HUBBARD,  B.S, 


PRICE,  TWO  DOLLARS 


1914 

FUEL   ENGINEERING    COMPANY   OF    NEW  YORK 
106  EAST   19iH  STREET,  NEW  YORK 


6,1* 


Copyright  1914 
FUEL   ENGINEERING   COMPANY   OF  NEW    YORK 


Prepared  and  Produced 

Under  Direction  of 

THE  SEARCH-LIGHT  LIBRARY 

New  York 


Second  Edition 

Copyright  1917 

FUEL  ENGINEERING  COMPANY  OF  NEW  YORK 


°)  ir 
PREFACE 

THIS  MANUAL  was  originally  written  for  pri- 
vate distribution  among  about  200  manufac- 
turers.    It  is  the  result  of  the  co-operative  effort 
of  these  manufacturers  to  eliminate  guess-work  methods 
in  the  selection  and  purchase  of  coal  and  the  develop- 
ment of  power. 

The  combined  experience  of  these  coal  users  in  the 
purchase  and  use  of  nearly  $50,000,000  worth  of  coal 
has  reduced  this  complex  problem  to  basic  principles. 
No  plans  or  theories  are  advanced  which  have  not  had 
the  test  of  actual  use,  and  each  fact  given  in  the  follow- 
ing pages  has  been  verified  by  a  large  number  of 
observations. 

This  problem  of  the  Cost  of  Power  necessitates  the 
application  of  several  branches  of  exact  science  for  its 
solution,  but  it  is,  after  all,  the  problem  of  the  business 
man — of  the  man  who  pays  for  the  power.  Although 
he  may  delegate  the  details  of  his  power  problem  to 
others,  the  business  executive  of  to-day  must  have  a 
clear  conception  of  this  problem,  that  he  may  point  the 
way  to  improvement  and  set  a  standard  of  achievement 
for  his  organization. 

In  the  form  here  presented,  the  book  has  been 
planned  to  fill  the  need  of  business  men  who  have  not 
had  an  opportunity  to  study  the  broader  aspects  of  the 
problem;  and  its  service  is  to  supplement  the  reader's 
knowledge  with  an  analysis  of  the  experience  of  many 
users  of  coal  and  makers  of  power. 

370138  THE  AUTHORS 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


PART    I 

Page 

Do  You  Know  What  Your  Power  Costs? 13 

Do  You  Know  What  It  Costs  to  Make  Steam? 14 

What  the  Business  Man  Needs  to  Know  About  Coal      .     .     .  14 

How  Do  You  Select  Your  Coal? 15 

Do  You  Know  the  Value  of  the  Coal  You  Buy? 15 

Have  You  a  Basis  for  Establishing  a  Standard  in  Buying  Coal?  16 
Why  a  Central  Bureau  Has  Been  Organized  to  Solve  These 

Problems 17 

Why  Every  Industry  Has  Its  Coal  Problem 18 

Are  You   Getting  Full   Value   Out   of  the   Coal   You   Have 

Bought? 18 

Are  You  Burning  Up  Your  Profits? 21 


PART   II 

How  a  Coal  Test  Differs  from  a  Chemical  Analysis  ....  22 

What  Terms  are  Used  in  Coal  Testing? 22 

What  is  Ash  and  Moisture? 23 

What  is  Volatile? 23 

What  is  Fixed  Carbon? 24 

What  is  Sulphur? 24 

Why  "B.T.U."  is  the  Measure  of  Heat  Value  .     .     .     .     .     .24 

What  is  the  Difference  Between  Kind  and  Quality  of  Coal?  25 

Why  the  "Ton"  is  Not  a  Measure  of  Fuel  Value  .     .     .     .    * .  26 

How  Much  Does  Coal  Vary  in  Quality?  .     .  • 26 

How  to  Interpret  this  Tabulation .27 

How  Impartial  Data  is  Valuable  as  a  Guide  in  Buying  Coal  .  28 

How  Many  Grades  are  There  of  Each  Kind  of  Coal?  ...  28 

How  to  fix  the  Responsibility  for  the  Quality  of  Coal  ...  30 
How  You  are  Affected  by  the  Preparation  of  Coal  for  the 

Market 31 

Why  Uniformity  is  a  Factor  in  Selecting  Coal  .....  32 

What  the  Government  Advises «.  34 

Why  Good  Reputation  Does  Not  Guarantee  Coal  Quality  .     .  34 


TABLE     OF     CONTENTS     (CONTINUED) 

Page 

How  You  May  Pay  for  Water  at  the  Price  of  Coal  ....  35 

How  Much  Moisture  Does  Coal  Contain? .      .  36 

How  Moisture  in  Coal  Varies  with  the  Seasons 39 

How  the  "B.T.U."  is  a  Positive  Measure  of  Value  ....  41 

Why  the  Calorimeter  is  a  Necessity 42 

Why  It  Is  Not  Safe  to  Depend  On  Ash  Tests  Alone  ...  42 
Why  It  Is  Difficult  to  Obtain  Accurate  Heat  Value  Deter- 
minations         43 

How  Heat  Determinations  Have  Been  Made  More  Reliable  44 


PART  III 

How  Volatile  Matter  Indicates  the  Kind  of  Coal  ....  46 

How  Coal  Is  Scientifically  Classified 46 

How  Heat  Values  of  Different  Classes  of  Coals  Compare  .  .  47 

What  Is  Shown  by  Typical  Tests  of  Three  Important  Classes  48 
Why  the  Amount  of  Volatile  Is  Important  in  Selecting  the 

Kind  of  Coal  to  Burn 49 

How  the  Classes  of  Coal  are  Further  Subdivided  After  Mining  50 

Why  the  Size  of  Anthracite  Is  Important 52 

Why  Sulphur  Is  an  Undesirable  Element  in  Coal  ....  53 

Why  Low  Sulphur  Coals  are  Usually  to  be  Preferred  ...  54 

How  to  Avoid  Clinker  Troubles 57 

How  Systematic  Tests  Simplify  Coal  Troubles 57 

How  Often  Should  Coal  Be  Tested 58 

How  to  Take  a  Representative  Coal  Sample 60 

How  Good  Sampling  Has  Been  Demonstrated  ..*...  61 

How  a  Plant  Manager  Proved  the  Accuracy  of  Sampling  .  .  62 
How  the  Testing  Plant  is  a  Model  of  Accuracy,  Speed  and 

Efficiency 63 

How  Each  Test  is  Subjected  to  Closest  Scrutiny  ....  64 
Why  You  Pay  More  and  Get  Less  by  Making  Your  Own  Coal 

Tests 65 

How  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company  Protects  Its  Clients  .  .  66 
How  Test  Reports  are  Mailed  Regularly  the  Day  Following 

the  Jteceipt  of  Sample— or,  if  Necessary,  the  Same  Day  66 


TABLE     OF     CONTENTS     (CONTINUED) 


PART  IV 

Pa* 

How  Coal  Tests  Can  Be  Easily  Read  in  Terms  of  Money  .     .  68 

How  the  Value  of  Coal  Is  Computed 69 

How  Coal  Tests  are  Translated  into  Money 70 

Why  Many  Coal  Losses  are  Not  Discovered  ..'....  71 
Why  Wide  Differences  in  Money  Value  are  not  Limited  to 

Any  One  Kind  of  Coal 72 

How  the  Cost  of  Transportation  from  Different  Fields  is  an 
Important  Factor  in  Selecting  the  Most  Economical  Coal 

to  Use 75 

How  the  Location  of  the  Plant  is  an  important  Factor  in  Se- 
lecting the  Most  Economical  Coal  to  Use  ......  77 

Why  Accurate  Coal  Quality  Reports  are  Necessary  for  the 

Operating  Department 78 

Why  Greater  Efficiency  Does  Not  Always  Mean  Lower  Cost  79 

Why  "Evaporation"  Alone  Does  Not  Indicate  Efficiency  .     .  80 


PART  V 

How  the  Coal  Test  Plays  an  Important  Part  in  a  Vital  Busi- 
ness Problem  ...  .     . 


What  is  This  Central  Bureau  of  Accurate  Coal  Facts  for  the 

Buyer  of  Coal? 83 

How  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company  Records  are  Collected  .     84 

How  to  Secure  Information  from  this  Confidential  Library  of 

Records 85 

How  the  Record  of  a  Particular  Coal  or  Coal  Dealer  Can  be 
Found  in  Less  Than  a  Minute 85 

How  the  Records  are  Used  by  Coal  Consumers  to  Save  Money    86 

How  These  Records  Help  the  Coal  Buyer  to  Reach  the  Cor- 
rect Decision 87 

How  it  is  Easy  to  Settle  Each  Coal  Question  as  it  Arises, 
Conclusively  and  Promptly— if  You  Have  the  Facts  .  .  88 

How  You  Can  Find  Unexpected  Sources  of  Coal  Supply  .     .     89 

How  this  Bureau  of  Coal  Information  Meets  Your  Emergen- 
cies  90 

How  One  Manufacturer  Saved  the  Cost  of  a  Year's  Service  by 
Asking  One  Question 93 


TABLE     OF     CONTENTS     (CONCLUDED) 

Page 
How  Current  Additions  to  the  Records  are  Placed  on  Your 

Desk    Each    Month    Through    a    Loose-Leaf    System    of 

Printed  Monthly  Reports     ..........     94 

Why  Now  is  the  Time  to  Make  the  Big  Savings  by  Scientific 

Methods  in  Coal  Buying 95 

Why  Specifications  are  the  Clincher  of  the  Coal  Purchase 

Problem 96 

How  Specifications  Secure  Lower  Prices  for  the  Buyer  .  .97 
Why  Specifications  Do  Not  Depend  Upon  Penalties  or  Price 

Reductions  for  Their  Value 98 

What  the  United  States  Government  Bureau  of  Mines  Advises 

in  Bulletin  41 98 

Why  Imperfect  Specifications  May  Be  More  Costly  Than  None  99 
How  Coal  Specifications  Have  Been  Proven  a  Success  .  .  .  100 
How  an  Association  Can  Save  Money  for  Its  Members  by  the 

Collective  Buying  of  Coal 102 

What  One  Prominent  Manufacturers'  Association  Says  About 

Collective  Buying 103 

How  States  and  Cities  Can  Safeguard  Coal  Purchases  .  .  .  104 


PART     VI 

How  Coal  Is  Turned  Into  Power 105 

How  Power  Losses  Can  Be  Prevented  ........  105 

How  the  Savings  Disclosed  by  the  Power  Plant  Balance  Sheet 

Mount  Into  Money 106 

How  the  Energy  Account  Looks  in  Actual  Figures  ....  108 
How  This  Same  Energy  Account  Was  Made  to  Save  Money  108 

How  Every  Power  Problem  Is  Different Ill 

Why  the  Energy  Account  Should  Show  the  Losses  for  365 

Days  of  the  Year 112 

How  to  Open  the  Energy  Account 113 

How  the  Services  of  the  Operating  Engineer  Become  More 

Valuable  . 114 

How  the  Coal  Service  Assists  the  Plant  Manager  .  .  .  .115 
How  the  Power  Service  Protects  and  Assists  You  at  Every 

Step  from  Mine  to  Delivered  Power 115 

Why  the  Cost  of  Power  Is  a  Big  Business  Problem  .  .  .  .116 

Why  You  Need  the  Coal  Service 117 

Why  You  Need  the  Power  Service 119 

The  Problem  and  Its  Solution 120 


ILLUSTRATIONS    AND    CHARTS 

Page 

Photograph  of  Grinding  Room  in  Coal  Testing  Plant  19 

Chart  Showing  Cross  Section  of  Three  Coal  Seams   31 

Chart  Showing  Ash  Percentages  in  Semi-Bituminous  Coal  ...  32 

Chart  Showing  Ash  Percentages  in  No.  1  Buckwheat  Coal  ...  33 

Photograph  of  Balance  Room  in  Coal  Testing  Plant 37 

Chart  Showing  Moisture  Variations  in  Coal  40 

Chart  Showing  Steam  Sizes  of  Anthracite  Coal   52 

Photograph  of  High  Temperature  Furnace  in  Coal  Testing 

Plant    55 

Photograph  of  Sulphur  Room  in  Coal  Testing  Plant 55 

Photograph  of  Calorimeter  Room  in  Coal  Testing  Plant 73 

Chart    Showing    Relative    Values    of    Anthracite    and    Semi- 
Bituminous    Coal    76 

Photograph  of  Coal  Records  in  Vault 91 

Chart  Showing  Elimination  of  Losses  through  Energy  Account  107 

Photograph  of  Corner  in  Library  of  Coal  Records .,.   109 

Photograph  of  General  Offices  of  Fuel  Engineering  Company 
of  New  York  .  .127 


IT  has  been  said  that  we  are  an  industrial 
nation.  I  feel  that  we  are  only  just  beginning 
to  be  an  industrial  nation,  and  shall  not  be  fully 
entitled  to  that  name  until  we  have  a  more  com- 
plete knowledge  of  the  principles  on  which  suc- 
cessful industry  is  based.  Too  many  of  our 
enterprises  are  still  founded  on  what  has  been 
done  rather  than  on  what  can  be  done.  The  real 
industrial  leader  must  be  guided  by  future  pos- 
sibilities rather  than  past  performances.  The 
growing  disposition  among  the  people  of  all  lands 
to  abolish  special  privileges  of  every  kind,  is 
going  to  make  it  necessary  for  those  who  carry 
on  industrial  operations  to  depend  more  and  more 
upon  their  own  efficiency,  and  to  get  away  as 
rapidly  as  possible  from  the  errors  of  past  practice. 
We  can  no  longer  blindly  follow  the  trail  of  those 
who  have  gone  before  simply  because  they  were 
successful.  What  spelled  success  yesterday,  may 
spell  failure  tomorrow.  Knowledge,  not  precedent 
or  opinion,  must  be  our  guide.  The  man  whose 
special  training  fits  him  to  acquire  the  necessary 
knowledge  is  the  engineer;  he  works  with  facts 
which  he  obtains  by  investigation;  others  are 
usually  guided  by  opinion,  which  is  too  often 
inherited  or  copied." 

HENRY  LAURENCE  GANTT,  M.E. 


BIG       BUSINESS       P  R  O  3  L  E  M 


PART    I 


Do  You  Know  What  Your  Power  Costs? 

To  tell  you  that  a  plant  manager  in  one  of  the 
largest  factories  in  the  United  States  did  not  know  the 
amount  of  finished  product  his  factory  produced,  or  the 
quality  of  the  raw  material  used,  or  anything  about  the 
economy  of  its  use,  undoubtedly  would  astonish  you. 
You  would  properly  answer :  "It  cannot  be  true — such 
a  factory  could  not  exist — it  would  spell  'failure.' ' 
To  tell  you  that  you,  perhaps,  are  one  of  ten  thousand 
who  are  doing  this  very  thing  would  meet  with  prompt 
and  emphatic  denial.  But  stop  and  think  a  minute : 

You  are  engaged  in  making  a  product  to  sell.  It 
may  be  anything  from  rubber  bands  to  locomotives; 
but  whatever  it  is,  you  have  spent,  without  doubt,  a 
large  sum  of  money  to  improve  your  methods  of  manu- 
facture— to  reduce  the  cost  of  your  product.  The  raw 
material  you  buy  is  carefully  inspected  and  tested  and 
probably  bought  under  strict  specifications.  Your  men 
have  been  trained  to  eliminate  every  useless  motion, 
however  small. 

But  let  us  ask  you  two  questions :  Do  you  really 
Icnow  wJiat  your  power  costs?  Do  you  know  how  much 
of  that  expense  fo  toss? 

13 


THE          COS.T          OF          POWER 


Do  You  Know  What  It  Costs  to  Make  Steam? 

The  foundation  of  your  whole  factory  system — the 
first  item  of  expense — is  down  in  the  basement,  or  off 
in  a  corner  of  the  yard,  forgotten  as  long  as  it  keeps 
running — your  steam  factory — we  will  call  it  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  factory  that  makes  your  sales- 
product.  You  consider  it  a  necessary  evil,  a  constant 
source  of  rising  expense.  It  can  and  should  be  made  a 
dividend  payer. 

If  steam  were  your  finished  product — the  only 
thing  that  you  made — and  you  were  selling  it  to  a  ma- 
chine shop  next  door,  in  competition  with  another  steam 
factory,  would  you  operate  your  steam  factory  the 
way  you  do  now?  Your  answer,  of  course,  is  that  you 
would  not;  but  that  you  are  now  making  car  wheels, 
and  your  hands  are  too  full  to  give  up  the  necessary 
time  to  go  into  steam  making  with  the  care  that  a  cen- 
tral station  man  does,  who  is  selling  power  alone. 

What  the  Business  Man  Needs  to  Know  About  Coal. 

Let  us  investigate  the  conditions  in  your  steam  fac- 
tory. Where  shall  we  start  to  put  it  on  the  same  kind 
of  a  business  basis  as  the  sales-product  factory?  The 
answer  is,  with  the  largest  single  element  in  the  cost  of 
power — coal.  We  must .  not  waste  time,  however,  in 
lengthy  scientific  discussion.  The  business  man  must 
enlist  the  aid  of  men  trained  in  the  scientific  side  of  the 
coal  problem.  With  confidence  in  our  scientific  founda- 
tion, we  must  jump  right  into  the  real  practical  busi- 
ness questions  that  must  be  answered.  What  is 
the  most  economical  kind  of  coal  for  me  to  buy  as  a 
raw  material  in  the  production  of  power?  What  coal 

14 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

of  this  kind,  judging  from  records  of  actual  past  per- 
formance, will  give  me  the  most  power  for  the  money? 
Where  can  I  get  it?  How  can  I  best  protect  my  in- 
terests in  contracting  for  this  material?  Is  my  plant 
turning  into  power  the  largest  possible  amount  of  this 
energy  that  I  buy  for  it?  If  not,  how  much  is  Iost9  and 
where  is  the  lost. energy  escaping? 

How  Do  You  Select  Your  Coal? 

Most  plants  to-day  simply  buy  so  many  tons  of 
coal  from  some  dealer  who  happened  to  be  on  the  job 
when  coal  was  needed,  or  perhaps  because  his  coal 
seemed  to  work  more  satisfactorily  than  two  or  three 
others  that  were  tried.  These  plant  managers  are  doing 
the  best  they  can,  without  doubt,  but  often  the  most 
economical  coal  to  use  in  a  given  plant  is  rejected 
because  the  firing  methods  are  not  suited  to  the  coal. 
Furthermore,  any  plant  dependent  solely  upon  its  own 
organization  must  be  limited  to  its  experience  with  the 
few  coals  it  has  had  an  opportunity  to  try.  Before 
proceeding  further  it  will  be  well  for  you  to  call  in  your 
bookkeeper  and  ask  him  exactly  what  you  are  paying 
each  year  for  coal — the  gross  sum  of  this  first  cost  of 
raw  material. 

Do  You  Know  the  Value  of  the  Coal  You  Buy? 

This  is  an  important  question ;  it  means  dollars  and 
cents — possibly  thousands  of  dollars.  Coal  varies  in 
character  through  a  thousand  gradations,  from  the  an- 
thracite of  Pennsylvania  to  the  lignite  of  Texas,  and 
the  value  of  coal  varies  tremendously  according  to  the 
character  of  the  coal  seam  and  the  care  observed  in 

16 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

preparing  it  for  market.  How  many  plant  managers, 
or  engineers,  know  accurately  the  value  of  each  lot  of 
coal  they  buy?  Few  can  avoid  costly  experiments  for 
they  have  no  data  in  advance  on  the  quality  and  char- 
acter of  coal  offered  to  them.  The  result  is  a  tremen- 
dous loss — the  burning  up  of  profits.  Variations  in 
quality  equal  to  ten  or  fifteen  cents  a  ton  can  occur 
without  being  noticed  by  your  firemen  or  without  being 
reported  to  you.  Perhaps  only  a  half  or  a  quarter  of 
the  deliveries  are  of  slightly  inferior  quality,  but  it 
would  pay  you  well  to  know  it  promptly.  It  is  watch- 
fulness at  every  point  that  pulls  down  the  cost  of 
power.  The  plant  manager  of  the  past  cannot  be 
blamed  for  guesswork  methods  in  this  department  of  his 
business.  Up  to  within  the  past  few  years  the  necessary 
information  could  not  be  obtained  from  any  one  central 
organization,  or  without  very  expensive  investigation. 

Have  You  a  Basis  for  Establishing  a  Standard  in 
Buying  Coal? 

Coal  testing  is  only  the  first  step.  When  you  have 
your  coal  tested  it  is  valueless  unless  you  have  one  more 
important  thing,  i.e.,  a  basis  for  comparison.  Tests 
of  your  coal  compared  one  with  another  are  not  suf- 
ficient; it  is  only  comparing  your  own  experience  of 
to-day  with  that  of  yesterday.  The  real  value  of  a 
test  is  in  comparing  it  with  thousands  of  other  tests  in 
hundreds  of  other  factories.  You  should  have  the 
whole  coal  market  before  you  in  exact  terms  of  coal 
quality.  Then  only  will  you  be  in  a  position  to  know 
whether  you  are  getting  the  most  for  your  money.  The 
selection  and  pwrckaw  of  coal,  if  done  thoroughly,  is 

16 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

so  bewildering  in  its  complexity  and  in  its  countless  pos- 
sibilities that  a  plant  manager,  in  the  midst  of  his  other 
duties,  cannot  expect  to  make  an  exhaustive  investiga- 
tion of  the  coal  market  any  more  than  he  would  study 
law  rather  than  submit  his  legal  questions  to  his  attor- 
ney. 

Why  a  Central  Bureau  Has  Been  Organized  to  Solve 
These  Problems. 

It  is  this  great  need  of  manufacturers  and  other 
large  coal  users  that  has  shown  the  necessity  for  an 
extensive  plan  of  co-operation  for  the  scientific  selection 
and  purchase  of  coal  and  the  economical  production  of 
power  from  it.  This  has  resulted  in  the  establishment 
of  a  central  bureau  managed  by  specialists  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  gather  exact  coal  and  power  data  from 
hundreds  of  coal  users  and  to  organize  this  information 
so  that  it  can  all  be  focused  quickly  upon  the  problems 
of  each  plant.  This  organization  is  known  as  the  Fuel 
Engineering  Company  of  New  York  and  confines  its  op- 
erations to  this  one  part  of  manufacturing  costs,  based 
upon  practical  experience,  scientific  knowledge,  and  the 
accumulation  of  vitally  important  data  which  cannot 
be  secured  in  any  other  way. 

The  Fuel  Engineering  Company  operates  a  large 
specialized  coal  testing  plant;  but,  what  is  even  more 
important,  this  company  has  for  years  been  collecting 
and  indexing  coal  information.  This  library  of  records 
now  includes  more  than  40,000  tests  of  coal  made  for 
several  hundred  coal  consumers,  and  is  being  added  to 
at  the  rate  of  about  6,000  a  year.  Coal  dealers  and 
miners  are  indexed  to  show  at  a  glance  the  character  of 
coal  they  supply,  their  reliability,  and  their  attitude 

IT 


THE          COST         OF         POWER 

toward  their  customers.  The  coals  are  indexed  to  show 
the  quality  of  each  kind,  its  variations,  its  adaptability 
to  certain  plant  conditions,  etc. 

Why  Every  Industry  Has  Its  Coal  Problem. 

Many  manufacturers  use  coal  in  gas-producing 
plants,  and  some  lines  of  industry  use  the  heat  from  coal 
in  manufacturing  processes  other  than  the  production 
of  power.  Each  one  of  these  has  its  own  problem  in 
the  selection  and  purchase  of  coal,  and  specialized 
knowledge  of  coal  is  here  even  more  important  than  in 
the  case  of  the  steam  plant.  The  pottery  manufacturer 
must  avoid  certain  fumes.  The  terra  cotta  manufac- 
turer requires  a  steady  supply  of  heat,  well  under  con- 
trol. The  brass  foundry  must  get  a  certain  amount  of 
heat  from  a  given  volume  of  coal.  The  cement  mill,  the 
iron  foundry,  the  smelter — there  are  many  special  coal 
uses  and  each  one  demands  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
coal  and  the  coal  market. 

Are  You  Getting  Pull  Value  Out  of  the  Coal  You  Have 
Bought? 

Surprisingly  few  plants  to-day  are  equipped  to 
measure  the  amount  of  water  evaporated,  or  the  exact 
amount  of  coal  used.  Unless  the  amount  of  the  product 
of  the  boiler  room  is  known,  as  well  as  the  quality  and 
amount  of  raw  material,  no  accurate  comparison  can  be 
made  between  the  coal  or  power  costs  of  two  periods. 
Few  manufacturers  can  say  definitely  that  their  higher 
coal  bill  this  year  is  due  to  poorer  coal,  or  to  the  use  of 
a  coal  not  as  well  suited  to  the  plant,  or  to  wasteful 
firing  methods,  or  to  more  steam  used  (or  wasted). 

16 


Preparation    Room    in    the    Testing   Plant   of    the    Fuel    Engineering    Company, 

where  the  coal  samples  are  pulverized  and   automatically   reduced 

in   size    for   the    testing. 


BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 


Are  You  Burning  Up  Your  Profits? 

This  question  can  be  answered  only  through  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  the  coal  market,  the  exact  value  of 
the  coal  you  buy,  and  a  continuous  record  of  operating 
results.  The  interest  of  the  Fuel  Engineering  Com- 
pany is  identical  with  the  business  man's  interest 
— to  keep  down  the  rising  cost  of  power.  It  does 
not  buy  or  sell  coal,  or  any  form  of  plant  equip- 
ment. Its  aim  is  to  get  the  most  out  of  a  plant 
as  it  stands.  The  Mechanical  Engineering  Depart- 
ment specializes  on  the  use  of  coal,  and  the  elimi- 
nation of  waste  in  the  production  of  power.  For  those 
of  its  clients  who  desire  it,  this  department  will  super- 
vise the  manufacture  of  their  power,  and  thus  give  to 
them  a  complete  and  accurate  check  upon  every  item  of 
power  cost,  from  the  selection  of  the  coal  to  the  deliv- 
ered power.  At  this  point  the  Fuel  Engineering  Com- 
pany Service  stops,  leaving  the  problems  of  manufac- 
turing your  sales-product  to  those  best  fitted  to  handle 
them.  The  following  pages  therefore  will  treat  of  this 
technical  subjett  with  as  little  scientific  discussion  as 
possible.  Facts  will  be  found  stated  in  the  business 
man's  measure  of  results — dollars  and  cents. 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 


PART    II 


How  a  Coal  Test  Differs  from  a  Chemical  Analysis. 

The  coal  test  of  commercial  use  is  not  what  is 
commonly,  but  incorrectly,  called — a  "chemical  analy- 
sis." The  coal  is  burned  completely  to  determine  the 
amount  of  ash  remaining,  it  is  dried  in  an  oven  to  drive 
off  the  moisture,  it  is  subjected  to  a  certain  amount  of 
heat  for  a  certain  length  of  time  to  drive  off  the  vola- 
tile, and  is  burned  in  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen  in  a 
calorimeter  to  measure  the  amount  of  heat  developed.  Is 
there  anything  chemical  about  these  processes?  And 
calorimetry  is  peculiarly  within  the  field  of  physics,  not 
chemistry.  The  sulphur  determination  alone  can  be 
called  a  chemical  test.  The  real  chemical  analysis  of 
coal  is  the  ultimate  analysis  which  breaks  the  coal  down 
into  its  chemical  elements ;  but  the  results  of  this  ulti- 
mate analysis  are  of  no  direct  commercial  importance; 
and  if  they  were,  the  cost  of  such  tests  and  the  length 
of  time  necessary  to  make  them  would  rob  them  of  all 
practical  usefulness  to  the  business  man  or  plant  engi- 
neer. 

What  Terms  are  Used  in  Coal  Testing. 

This  coal  test — the  coal  test  that  the  business  man 
needs — tells  the  amount  of  ash,  or  unburnable  material 
in  the  coal,  the  amount  of  moisture,  of  sulphur ,  of  vola- 
tile matter,  and  ike  British  Thermal  Untos.  While  these 

22 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

terms  are  no  doubt  familiar,  a  few  words  about  each 
will  be  in  order  before  we  look  into  the  real  dollars  and 
cents  meaning  of  each  to  the  business  man. 

What  Is  Ash  and  Moisture? 

Ash  is  the  solid  incombustible  material  remaining 
after  the  coal  is  completely  burned.  It  should  not  be 
confounded  with  the  refuse,  which  is  removed  from  the 
ash-pit  of  a  furnace.  All  coal  contains  a  certain  amount 
of  solid  substance  called  "ash"  which  is  inseparably  asso- 
ciated with  its  other  constituents ;  but  in  all  coal  mined 
for  commercial  purposes  to-day  the  amount  of  this  is 
comparatively  small.  The  major  part  of  the  ash  in 
coal  as  delivered  is  composed  of  rock  which  is  found 
above  or  below  a  coal  seam,  or  in  the  form  of  parting! 
within  the  seam.  It  cannot  be  measured  exactly  by  the 
refuse  from  a  furnace,  for  this  always  contains  a  certain 
amount  of  combustible  matter  which  is  a  source  of  loss 
in  the  operation  of  a  power  plant,  varying  in  impor- 
tance with  the  care  in  firing  methods,  and  the  relation 
of  the  equipment  to  the  coal.  The  laboratory  test  it 
the  only  accurate  means  of  measuring  the  ash  element, 
for  there  the  coal  is  burned  under  ideal  conditions,  and 
all  of  the  combustible  matter  is  consumed.  Moisture 
needs  little  comment.  It  not  only  produces  no  heat, 
but  requires  a  part  of  the  heat  liberated  by  the 
coal  to  drive  it  off. 

What  Is  Volatile? 

Volatile  matter  is  that  part  of  the  coal  which  is 
driven  off  in  the  form  of  gas,  when  the  coal  is  subjected 
to  heat.  Part  of  it  produces  heat ;  pound  for  pound  it 
produces  more  heat  than  any  other  part  of  the  coal. 

23 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

Differences  in  the  composition  of  this  volatile  matter 
cause  wide  differences  in  the  amount  of  heat  that  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  coals  will  produce,  assuming  that  each 
has  the  same  amount  of  ash  and  moisture. 

What  Is  Fixed  Carbon? 

Fixed  carbon  is  simply  what  is  left  after  the  ash, 
moisture  and  volatile  are  accounted  for.  It  is  not  deter- 
mined by  experiment,  but  is  the  difference  between  100 
per  cent,  and  the  sum  of  the  percentages  of  the  three 
determinations  mentioned. 

What  Is  Sulphur? 

Sulphur  is  determined  separately,  and  not  reported 
in  the  test  as  a  part  of  the  100  per  cent.,  which  is  made 
up  of  the  ash,  moisture,  volatile,  and  fixed  carbon,  be- 
cause a  part  of  it  goes  off  as  volatile  matter,  and  a  part 
remains  in  combination  with  other  elements  of  the  ash. 
A  description  of  sulphur  alone  is  a  purely  technical  one. 
A  discussion  of  its  significance  to  the  business  man  will 
be  found  on  another  page. 

Why  "B.T.U."  Is  the  Measure  of  Heat  Value. 

The  British  Thermal  Unit  (commonly  called  the 
B.T.U.)  is  the  measure  of  heat  value  used,  in  this 
country,  and  represents  the  amownt  of  heat  required  to 
raise  one  pound  of  water  one  degree  Fahrenheit.  This 
is  not  a  full  scientific  definition  of  the  B.T.U.,  but  it  is 
sufficiently  accurate  for  the  purpose  of  giving  an  idea 
of  its  value.  33479  B.T.U.  per  hour  is  equal  to  one 
boiler  horsepower.  The  heat  value  of  coal  is  expressed 
as  the  "B.T.U.  Dry,"  or  "B.T.U.  as  Received."  The 
B.T.U.  Dry  is  the  measure  of  the  heating  value  of  a 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

pound  of  coal  which  has  been  completely  dried  out.  The 
B.T.U.  as  Received  (sometimes  called  the  B.T.U.  Com- 
mercial) is  the  measure  of  heat  value  of  the  coal  with 
whatever  per  cent,  of  moisture  the  particular  sample  is 
found  to  contain.  If  either  one  is  known,  together  with 
the  amount  of  moisture,  the  other  can  be  calculated. 

Example: — Given,  B.T.U.  as  received  12,000,  and  moisture  5  per 
^     B.T.U.  dry    BJ  -O.  »  received  xlOO=lj^OOO=126^ 
1 00 — per  cent,  of  moisture          95 

What  Is  the  Difference  Between  Kind  and  Quality 
of  Coal? 

There  are  certain  characteristics  of  coal  which 
have  been  fixed  by  Nature  beyond  the  power  of  man  to 
alter.  Some  of  the  most  important  factors  in  determi- 
ning the  value  of  coal  as  a  power  producer,  however, 
can  be  and  are  controlled  by  the  methods  of  mining  and 
preparation  of  the  coal  for  market.  The  coal  buyer 
therefore  should  become  accustomed  to  the  consideration 
of  these  two  classes  of  characteristics  in  their  proper 
light.  The  amount  and  composition  of  the  volatile  mat- 
ter cannot  be  changed  by  the  methods  of  mining,  and 
the  amount  of  heat  a  given  coal  will  produce  is  fixed, 
assuming  it  to  be  free  from  ash,  moisture  and  sulphur. 
But  the  miner  can,  by  his  methods,  very  materially  af- 
fect the  amount  of  ash  which  a  cargo  of  coal  contains, 
and  thereby  directly  reduce  or  increase  that  part  of  each 
ton  which  is  of  value.  Part  of  the  sulphur,  like  a  part 
of  the  ash,  is  an  inherent  part  of  the  coal  substance,  but 
in  many  coals  it  is  largely  in  combination  with  iron  as 
a  part  of  the  ash,  and  therefore  also  controlled  to  a 
considerable  degree  by  methods  of  mining  and  prepara- 
tion for  market.  The  B.T.U.  is  affected  in  part  by 

25 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

the  character  of  the  coal ;  but  it  is  also  directly  depend- 
ent upon  the  care  in  excluding  as  much  ash  as  possible, 
for  as  this  increases  per  pound,  the  heat  producing  ele- 
ments decrease  in  proportion. 

Why  the  "Ton"  Is  Not  a  Measure  of  Fuel  Value. 

The  coal  delivered  to  you  is  nothing  more  than 
"power"  in  packages — raw  material.  The  ton  of  black 
material  is  the  package  in  which  the  goods  are  shipped 
to  you ;  the  volatile  is  the  label  which  indicates  the  char- 
acter of  the  goods ;  the  ash  is  an  indication  of  quality 
and  the  care  in  manufacture ;  and  the  number  of  B.T.U. 
gives  you  the  quantity  of  power  contained  in  the  pack- 
age. You,  a  maker  of  power,  should  be  buying  heat 
(B.T.U.)  in  the  form  most  economical  for  you  to  use 
(indicated  by  the  Volatile)  and  delivered  in  a  package 
called  a  "ton  of  coal."  Would  you  buy  a  box  of  tools 
without  knowing  how  many  there  were  in  the  box,  or 
whether  they  were  suited  to  your  needs,  or  whether  they 
had  been  so  carefully  manufactured  that  they  would 
give  you  good  service?  The  only  excuse  for  buying 
heat  units  in  such  a  way  is  that  you  can  see  the  package, 
but  cannot  see  the  contents  or  heat  units.  Science  has 
devised  means  of  measuring  the  heat  units,  and  the 
effectiveness  with  which  your  plant  uses  them  in  makmg 
power. 

How  Much  Does  Coal  Vary  in  Quality? 

Consider  for  a  moment  the  percentage  of  ash  as  the 
only  index  of  the  quality  of  coal.  Here  are  some  facts 
and  figures.  The  data  contained  in  the  tabulation  be- 
low was  obtained  from  tests  of  about  1,000  deliveries 

26 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

of  No.  1  Buckwheat  to  coal  users  in  New  York  City. 
The  table  gives  the  highest  and  lowest  ash  percentage 
found  during  each  month.  On  another  page  these  same 
figures  will  be  found  combined  with  the  B.T.U.,  and 
interpreted  in  terms  of  money  value. 


19 

12 

19 

13 

High 
Per  Cent. 

Low 
Per  Cent. 

High 
Per  Cent. 

Low 
Per  Cent. 

24.92 

11.30 

23.43 

8.62 

February    .... 
March    .              .     . 

28.42 
2460 

10.18 

889 

33.38 
22  90 

10.20 
12  16 

April      

2413 

10.60 

25.72 

11.92 

May  

2393 

11.83 

27.40 

11.70 

June       

26.18 

10.29 

31.85 

6.32 

Tulv  . 

29.50 

11.22 

28.18 

11.66 

August 

2540 

1271 

2483 

1077 

September      .     .     . 
October      .... 
November  .... 
December  .... 

23.95 

26.80 
23.70 
26.68 

11.36 
12.36 
9.73 
9.30 

30.02 
26.06 
26.75 

25.80 

11.40 
10.64 
12.10 
10.63 

Average     .... 

25.68 

10.81 

27.18 

10.68 

How  to  Interpret  This  Tabulation. 

This  tabulation  shows  the  great  variations  in  qual- 
ity constantly  occurring.  Considering  the  whole  period, 
it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  difference  of  more  than  27 
between  the  highest  percentage  of  ash  and  the  lowest. 
The  greatest  difference  within  one  month  occurred 
in  June,  1913,  amounting  to  25.53,  and  the  smallest 
spread  from  high  to  low  in  March,  1913,  when  it 
^amounted  to  10.74.  The  average  high  and  low  percent- 
ages for  each  year  show  a  difference  in  1912  of  14.87,, 


27 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

and  in  1913  of  16.50.  It  is,  of  course,  extremely  un- 
likely that  any  one  purchaser  would  get  all  the  poorest 
deliveries,  or  all  the  best.  The  figures  prove,  however, 
that  big  variations  m  value  are  occurring  every  day  in 
the  quality  of  coal  delivered. 

How  Impartial  Data  is  Valuable  as  a  Guide  in  Buy- 
ing Coal. 

It  is  only  human  nature  for  a  dealer  to  see  that  his> 
better  coal  goes  to  the  buyer  who  has  the  facts,  and 
knows  what  he  is  getting.  Many  coal  consumers  who 
have  tried  it  consider  systematic  tests  of  coal  to  be 
well  worth  their  cost  for  this  reason  alone.  The  im- 
portance of  selecting  the  coal  and  coal  dealer,  on  the 
basis  of  impartial  data  collected  from  many  sources, 
can  be  seen  from  an  analysis  of  the  facts  in  the  fore- 
going table.  This  shows  that  ten  dealers  contributed 
to  the  good  records  (low  ash).  Of  these  ten,  one  was 
credited  with  ten  of  the  twenty-four  good  records. 
Eighteen  dealers  are  represented  in  the  list  of  poor 
records,  and  three  of  them  are  responsible  for  one-third 
of  the  high  ash  figures,  without  contributing  a  single 
one  to  the  good  records.  Much  costly  experiment  can 
be  avoided  by  having  available  such  information  as  that 
from  which  this  data  was  compiled. 

How  Many  Grades  are  There  of  Each  Kind  of  Coal? 

Now  let  us  look  at  this  matter  of  variations  in 
coal  quality  from  a  different  angle.  We  will  disregard 
the  variations  in  quality  between  shipments  from  the 
same  mine,  and  compare  the  average  value  of  shipments 
from  a  number  of  mines  with  each  other.  For  this 


BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 


comparison  fifteen  well-known  Semi-Bituminous  coals 
have  been  selected  from  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company 
Library  of  coal  records.  The  tests  were  made  on  coal 
actually  delivered  to  consumers.  In  the  case  of  each 
mine,  tests  on  more  than  100  deliveries  have  been  aver- 
aged, thus  obtaining  results  which  are  thoroughly  rep- 
resentative of  each  coal.  The  sulphur  and  volatile,  as 
well  as  the  ash,  are  given  in  this  case,  for  these  ele- 
ments are  of  equal  importance  in  selecting  Semi-Bitumi- 
nous or  Bituminous  coals.  The  table  below  shows,  first, 
that  different  mines  producing  the  same  general  char- 
acter of  coal  may  have  a  distinctly  different  rating  for 
the  quality  of  coal  they  produce,  accepting  the  ash  as 
an  index  of  quality;  second,  how  great  the  differences 
are  in  the  percentages  of  sulphur  in  coals  from  different 
mines ;  and  third,  how  many  combinations  of  these  three 
important  factors  in  coal  selection — ash,  sulphur,  and 
volatile — are  possible. 


No.  of 
Tests 
Averaged 

Per  Cent. 
A»h 

Per  Cent. 
Sulphur 

Per  Cent. 
Volatile 

District 

Index 
Number 

122 

7.48 

1.57 

21.22 

Cambria  County 

1 

138 

6.28 

.84 

19.42 

West  Virginia 

2 

294 

8.96 

2.20 

22.22 

Cambria  County 

3 

603 

7.22 

.79 

19.55 

Cambria  County 

4 

184 

9.36 

1.01 

16.35 

Somerset  County 

5 

247 

8.74 

.97 

16.45 

Somerset  County 

6 

102 

10.55 

1.37 

22.91 

Cambria  County 

7 

168 

7.57 

1.53 

17.27 

Cambria  County 

8 

134 

6.68 

1.35 

15.81 

Cambria  County 

9 

116 

6.49 

1.98 

20.79 

Cambria  County 

10 

139 

8.58 

1.71 

17.61 

Huntingdon  County 

11 

153 

8.83 

2.29 

20.90 

Cambria  County 

12 

257 

10.06 

1.57 

16.12 

Somerset  County 

13 

345 

5.24 

.69 

17.20 

Cambria  County 

14 

306 

8.86 

1.12 

15.85 

Somerset  County 

15 

THE         COST         OF         POWER 

A  little  study  of  this  table  will  show  how  valuable 
to  the  coal  buyer  are  the  records  from  which 
these  figures  were  taken.  You  now  may  be  using  one 
of  these  fifteen  coals;  but  do  you  know  which  one?  Do 
you  know  that  it  is  more  economical  for  your  use  than 
some  one  of  the  others?  If  some  one  of  the  other  coals 
were  offered  to  you,  think  how  valuable  data  like  this 
would  be  in  making  an  accurate  comparison  of  value, 
and  in  making  possible  prompt  decisions  with  certainty. 

How  to  Fix  the  Responsibility  for  the  Quality  of  Coal. 

The  inability  or  neglect  of  the  users  to  protect 
themselves  on  this  important  point  causes  the  loss  of 
thousands  of  dollars.  The  dealer,  and  back  of  him  the 
miner,  should  be  responsible  for  the  quality  of  the  prod- 
uct he  ships  to  market.  Moreover,  he  would  be  held 
responsible  if  the  coal  buyer  was  not  grossly  ignorant 
of  what  he  is  buying  and  unable  to  prove  whether  his 
coal  is  good,  bad  or  indifferent.  The  claim  that  be- 
cause two  shipments  of  coal  came  from  the  same  mine 
they  therefore  must  be  of  equal  value  is  a  fallacy. 
The  character  of  the  coal  bed  constantly  changes  as 
the  mining  operations  advance,  sometimes  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  mine  has  to  be  abandoned.  But  even 
with  mining  conditions  the  same,  there  is  a- big  human 
element  in  the  methods  of  mining  and  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  coal  for  market.  Every  manufacturer  knows 
that  the  quality  of  his  own  product  is  dependent  upon 
the  character  of  management  of  the  plant,  and  upon 
the  interest  and  reliability  of  his  foremen,  his  inspectors, 
and  his  workmen.  How  long  would  you  keep  your 
customers,  solely  upon  the  strength_.of.  your. .reputation, 
if  you  let  the  quality  of  your  product  decline?  Your 

30 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

customers  test  and  inspect  your  goods,  and  are  quick 
to  claim  rebates,  or  to  change  to  your  competitor,  if 
the  goods  are  not  up  to  standard.  Why  should  you  not 
apply  the  same  good  sound  business  principles  in  buying 
coal? 

How  You  are  Affected  by  the  Preparation  of  Coal  for 
the  Market. 

This  is  an  important  item  and  you  pay  the  bill 
without  knowing  why.  The  necessity  for  preparation 
of  coal,  before  being  shipped  to  market,  varies  in  dif- 
ferent mines.  It  is  your  business  to  know  about  it. 
In  one  place  there  may  be  a  thick  vein  of  coal,  with 
no  parting  and  easy  to  mine  without  taking  out  too 
much  of  the  surrounding  rock.  In  another  the  vein 
may  be  thin,  or  divided  by  one  or  more  thin  partings 
of  slate  or  other  rock  material,  which  must  be  mined 
with  the  coal.  Cross  sections  of  several  coal  veins  are 
given  below  to  illustrate  this  point. 


Shale 
Coal 


CROSS  SECTION  OF  THREE  COAL  SEAMS— From  the  "Mary- 
land Geological  Survey." 

31 


THE 


COST 


O  F 


POWER 


Why  Uniformity  Is  a  Factor  in  Selecting  Coal. 

The  unreliability  of  this  human  element  in  mining 
and  the  variations  in  quality  can  be  seen  clearly  from 
the  charts  below.  Two  charts  show  the  ash  percentage 
in  fourteen  consecutive  deliveries  of  two  well-known 
semi-bituminous  coals,  and  the  others  of  No.  1  Buck- 
wheat. The  wide  range  of  the  upper  semi-bituminous 
chart  is  a  clear  indication  of  careless  preparation  (or 
perhaps  none)  as  contrasted  with  the  lower  one  which 
represents  one  of  the  best  coals  of  this  character  offered 
in  the  Eastern  market. 


SEMI-BITUMINOUS  CHART— These  charts  illustrate  the  vary- 
ing: ash  percentages  in  fourteen  consecutive  deliveries  of  two 
different  semi-bituminous  coals.  The  coal  represented  by  the  upper 
chart  was  poorly  prepared  and  consequently  shows  wide  variations 
in  quality,  as  contrasted  with  the  lower  one. 

32 


BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 


ANTHRACITE  CHART  NO.  1  BUCK— These  charts  illustrate 
the  varying  ash  percentages  in  fourteen  consecutive  deliveries  of 
No.  1  Buckwheat  by  two  dealers.  They  show  how  the  quality  of 
coal  delivered  to  a  given  plant  may  be  affected  by  the  degree  of 
care  exercised  by  a  dealer  in  selecting  his  coal. 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

What  the  Government  Advises. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines,  in  a  bulletin, 
said :  "The  quality  of  coal  -from  a  given  mine  may  vary 
from  time  to  time  through  the  failure  of  the  miners  to 
reject  impurities;  or  the  physical  and  chemical  char- 
acter of  the  coal  in  a  certain  bed  may  vary  from  place 
to  place.  In  some  coal  fields  different  beds  of  coal 
are  mined  at  the  same  time  and  the  output  is  mixed. 
When  there  is  need  of  preparation,  as  by  picking  slate 
or  other  impurities,  or  by  jigging  or  washing,  the  qual- 
ity or  value  of  the  coal  marketed  depends  a  great  deal 
on  the  care  taken  in  the  processes  employed.  The 
mining  companies  are  responsible  in  a  large  measure 
for  variations  in  the  grade  of  prepared  coal.  The  pur- 
chase of  coal  under  a  contract  that  distinctly  specifies 
its  quality,  stimulates  the  operator  to  prepare  coal 
better  before  shipping  it  to  market." 


Why   Good   Reputation   Does   Not   Guarantee   Coal 
Quality. 

A  significant  story  will  illustrate  how  even  the 
greatest  care,  and  a  good  reputation,  do  not  guarantee 
coal  quality.  A  certain  coal  mining  company  had  been 
for  some  years  shipping  a  very  high  grade  coal.  The 
coal  was  quite  uniform  in  quality,  indicating  careful 
mining  methods.  The  coal  was  being  shipped  to  several 
of  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company's  clients  when  all  at 
once  the  tests  began  to  show  up  unusually  bad  for  any 
coal  of  this  kind.  The  sales  manager  of  the  mining 
company  insisted  that  there  must  be  something  wrong 
with  the  sampling  or  testing,  for  he  said  it  was  simply 

34 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

impossible  for  his  coal  to  run  as  bad  as  the  reports 
showed  it,  and  pointed  to  its  good  record  extending  over 
several  years.  He  was  finally  persuaded  to  take  a  trip 
to  the  mines  to  investigate.  The  result  was  that  he  dis- 
covered his  mine  superintendent  had  some  weeks  before 
become  extremely  intoxicated  and  remained  in  that  con- 
dition to  the  neglect  of  the  mine. 
/ 

How  You  May  Pay  for  Water  at  the  Price  of  Coal. 

All  coal  contains  a  certain  amount  of  moisture 
when  mined.  Within  any  given  class  of  coal  this  factor 
does  not  vary  to  any  serious  extent.  It  is  beyond  the 
control  of  the  miner.  Minimum  moisture,  therefore, 
must  be  considered  an  unavoidable  loss.  There  is  a 
big  variation  in  moisture,  however,  that  comes  from 
the  additions  by  rain  or  snow,  or  from  a  hose,  the 
latter  method  usually  being  of  more  importance  to  the 
purchaser  than  the  former.  Coal  purchased  in  car-lots 
is  paid  for  on  the  basis  of  the  weights  at  the  mines 
at  the  time  of  loading  the  cars.  This  weight,  of  course, 
includes  the  inherent  moisture  and  is  not  affected,  by 
the  moisture  which  is  added  in  transit  because  of  storms. 

But  reverse  the  conditions,  and  pay  for  the  coal  on 
the  basis  of  its  weight  at  time  of  delivery.  Then  the 
moisture  is  as  important  as  the  ash,  for  it  must  be 
paid  for  at  the  price  of  coal,  and  the  excess  above  the 
minimum  moisture  at  the  mines  is  a  pure  loss  to  the 
purchaser.  This  question  usually  arises  where  coal  is 
sold  in  wagon  lots,  in  which  case  the  moisture  may 
have  been  added  through  exposure  in  the  dealer's  yard, 

35 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

or  the  dealer  may  wet  it  down  to  make  it  easier  to 
handle.  There  is  no  apparent  reason  why  the  coal 
dealer  should  be  paid  -for  this  excess  weight  of  moisture 
at  the  price  of  coal,  for  if  it  came  in  the  shape  of  rain 
it  entailed  upon  him  not  even  the  expense  of  water 
tax  or  the  little  labor  with  a  hose  which  he  would  as- 
sume if  he  wet  it  down  himself.  His  coal  is  purchased 
on  the  basis  of  the  mine  weights,  and  all  the  moisture 
he  can  put  on  the  scales  over  and  above  the  mine  mois- 
ture means  a  very  handsome  profit  in  the  sale  of  water. 
This  should  not  be  taken  to  mean  that  coal  dealers 
generally  wet  down  coal  for  the  purpose  of  deliberately 
defrauding  their  customers,  although  it  furnishes  a 
splendid  opportunity  to  a  dealer  inclined  to  sharp  prac- 
tices, and  the  percentage  of  dishonest  men,  unfortunate- 
ly, is  probably  as  great  in  the  coal  business  as  in  any 
other.  It  is,  without  question,  necessary  at  times  to 
wet  down  a  load  of  coal,  especially  coal  in  fine  form, 
to  avoid  flying  dust  as  the  coal  is  carried  through  the 
streets  or  is  being  unloaded.  Too  much  water  may  be 
added  by  an  irresponsible  employe  without  any  instruc- 
tions or  even  the  knowledge  of  the  dealer;  but  the  pur- 
chaser should  be  protected  from  this  loss,  and  an  hon- 
est dealer  should  be  willing  to  accept  a  reasonable 
basis  of  adjustment. 

How  Much  Moisture  Does  Coal  Contain? 

Moisture  varies  with  the  kind  of  coal  (we  are  now 
speaking  of  total  moisture  at  time  of  delivery),  ac- 
cording to  its  capacity  for  retaining  the  water  when 

36 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

once  added.  In  anthracite  coal  the  smaller  the  indi- 
vidual lumps  of  coal  the  more  moisture  the  coal  will 
hold.  Below  is  a  table  which  shows  the  average  mois- 
ture determination  on  several  thousand  samples  of  each 
steam  size  of  anthracite : 

Anthracite— Pea 4.12  per  cent 

No.  1  Buckwheat     .  4.34  per  cent. 

No.  2  Buckwheat     .  5.39  per  cent 

No.  3  Buckwheat     .  6.52  per  cent. 

Screenings  ....  7.03  per  cent. 

Semi-bituminous  and  bituminous  coals  are  not  included 
under  this  rule,  because  they  have  a  certain  property 
of  absorbing  moisture  as  well  as  holding  it  mechanically. 
The  bituminous  coals  of  the  Middle  Western  field,  un- 
like the  Eastern  coals,  contain  a  very  large  percentage 
of  inherent  moisture  when  mined.  In  comparing  the 
fuel  values  of  different  classes  of  coals  this  moisture 
factor  should  be  taken  into  account,  but  in  a  com- 
parison between  two  coals  of  the  same  class,  it  should 
be  eliminated  to  avoid  differences  that  are  likely  to  be 
purely  accidental. 

How  Moisture  in  Coal  Varies  With  the  Seasons. 

Although  not  of  any  particular  commercial  appli- 
cation, the  relation  of  moisture  in  delivered  coal  to  the 
calendar  is  interesting.  The  chart  on  the  next  page 
was  made  up  -from  monthly  averages  of  moisture  tests 
during  a  period  of  two  years  on  several  hundred  samples 
of  each  kind  of  coal  each  month.  The  close  relationship 
between  the  curves  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
variations  are  truly  seasonal  ones. 


7.0 


aa 


$*<> 


/.o 


/fcFZ.^ 


d\. 


?'&&?/&&&? 


&  '£&/&<.  •'•]£.  & 


WP 


ArfGA/77-f 


MOISTURE  CHART— Notice  how  the  amount  of  moisture  in 
these  four  classes  of  coal  changes  in  the  same  direction  according 
to  the  season.  There  is  a  marked  tendency  to  higher  moisture 
during  the  winter  months. 


40 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

One  more  point  in  regard  to  moisture  must  be  con- 
sidered, and  that  is  in  relation  to  operating  records. 
When  coal  is  weighed,  as  fired,  as  a  part  of  the  boiler 
room  record,  moisture  should  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion, for  it  makes  up  a  part  of  the  weight  of  the  coal 
fired,  but  reduces  by  that  much  the  heating  power 
introduced  under  the  boilers. 

How  the  "B.  T.  U."  Is  a  Positive  Measure  of  Value. 

Up  to  this  point  we  have  been  discussing  negative 
indications  of  fuel  value.  Ash  and  moisture  are  not 
heat  producers,  and  their  relative  presence  or  absence 
lowers  or  raises  the  possible  limits  of  the  positive  factor 
— the  heat-producing  power  of  a  given  lot  of  coal.  It 
does  not,  by  any  means,  indicate  the  actual  heat-pro- 
ducing power,  which  can  only  be  determined  by  direct 
experimental  methods  with  an  instrument  known  as  a 
calorimeter.  To  demonstrate  the  necessity  of  actually 
determining  the  B.T.U.,  tests  of  ten  samples  of  coal 
have  been  taken,  and  each  one  reduced  to  the  same 
basis — 10  per  cent,  ash  in  dry  coal. 

1.  Semi- Bituminous     .     .    .     14,350  B.T.U.Dry    Normal 

2.  Semi- Bituminous     .     .     .     13,950  B.T.U.Dry    Normal 

3.  Semi- Bituminous     .    .     .     13,510  B.T.U.Dry     Known  to  have 

been  heated  in 
storage 

4.  Bituminous 14,000  B.T.U.Dry    Normal 

6.    Bituminous 13,500  B.T.U.Dry    Normal 

6.  Anthracite 13,810  B.T.U.Dry    Normal 

7.  Anthracite 13,050  B.T.U.Dry    Normal 

8.  Anthracite 12,410  B.T.U.Dry 

9.  Anthracite 12,180  B.T.U.Dry 

10.  Anthracite  .....  11,780  B.T.U.Dry 

41 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

Why  the  Calorimeter  Is  a  Necessity. 

It  can  be  seen  at  a  glance,  first,  that  there  is  an 
appreciable  difference  m  heat  value  between  two  sam- 
ples of  the  same  general  character  of  coal  of  the  same 
ash  percentage  andj  second,  that  there  is  a  marked 
difference  in  the  heat  value  between  different  classes 
of  coal. 

The  first  two  tests  are  of  perfectly  normal,  fresh- 
"mined  semi-bituminous  coal.  No.  3  is  a  semi-bitumi- 
nous coal,  the  heating  value  of  which  has  been  reduced 
by  heating  in  storage.  In  this  particular  case,  the 
fact  that  this  lot  of  coal  had  been  heated  was  known, 
but  the  purchaser  cannot  always  have  means  of  know- 
ing such  a  fact.  The  coal  delivered  may  actually  be 
considerably  poorer  than  a  simple  statement  of  the  ash 
percentage  wtmld  indicate. 

The  two  bituminous  coal  tests  (Nos.  4<  and  5) 
are  both  normal,  and  show  the  possible  variations  wider 
normal  conditions.  The  distinction  between  semi-bi- 
tuminous and  bituminous  coal  will  be  described  later, 
as  well  as  the  reason  for  the  variation  in  heating  value 
between  the  different  classes  of  coal. 

Why  It  Is  Not  Safe  to  Depend  on  Ash  Tests  Alone. 

Of  the  five  last  tests,  the  first  two  are  normal 
anthracites.  The  last  three  are  tests  of  a  peculiar 
kind  of  anthracite,  which  makes  its  appearance  from 
time  to  time.  It  usually  runs  quite  low  in  ash,  and 
very  low  in  teat  m  comparison  to  the  amount  of  ash. 
The  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  has  not  been  de- 
termined exactly.  This  much  is  known,  however,  that 
these  coals  contain  some  substance  which  is  not  a  heat 

49 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

producer,  and  which  is  not  commonly  a  constituent  of 
the  volatile  matter  of  coal,  although  it  is  driven  off  as 
volatile.  Thus  one  of  these  anthracites,  when  tested  by 
the  standard  method  for  volatile,  showed  over  17  per 
cent.,  which  is  the  normal  volatile  of  a  high-grade  semi- 
bituminous  coal.  The  delivery  of  a  cargo  of  coal  repre- 
sented by  one  of  the  above  tests  nearly  shut  down  the 
plant  of  a  client  of  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company.  The 
coal  had  been  sampled  and  the  test  was  being  run  when 
a  frantic  telephone  call  was  received  from  the  client 
to  ask  what  the  results  of  the  test  were.  He  said  that 
"he  could  not  keep  up  steam,  although  the  coal  did  not 
seem  to  contain  more  than  the  ordinary  amount  of  ash. 
When  the  test  was  completed,  it  was  apparent  that  he 
had  received  a  lot  of  this  "freak"  anthracite.  Had  this 
consumer  been  judging  his  coal,  or  paying  for  it  on 
the  basis  of  ash  alone,  he  would  have  paid  the  full 
price  for  a  very  inferior  coal.  This  experience  clearly 
illustrates  the  fact  that  the  buyer  of  coal  is  buying 
heat  units  and  not  an  absence  of  ash, 

Why  It  Is  Difficult  to  Obtain  Accurate  Heat  Value 

Determinations. 
Mr.  Joseph  W.  Hays,  a  prominent  engineer,  in  an 

article  published  in  "System,"  March,  1912,  said: 

"A  heat  value  determination  is  an  exceedingly 
difficult  thing  to  make  with  accuracy.  An  ordi- 
nary laboratory,  be  its  chemists  ever  so  able, 
should  not  be  trusted  with  a  B.T.U.  determination. 
Such  determination,  if  it  is  to  be  relied  upon,  re- 
quires high-priced  calorimeters  not  found  in  aver- 
age laboratories,  and  also  involves  a  great  deal  of 
skill  and  experience  in  the  manipulation  of  such 

43 


THE          COST          OF          POWER 

apparatus.  There  are  a  great  many  calorimeters 
on  the  market  for  the  determination  of  fuel  values 
— some  of  them  cannot  be  depended  upon  within 
500  heat  units.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  calori- 
meter that  'anybody  can  use'  and  be  sure  of  ac- 
curate results.  The  more  reliable  the  calorimeter 
is,  the  more  expertness  is  required  in  its  manipu- 
lation." 

The  author  of  this  statement  has  no  financial  in- 
terest in  any  coal-testing  plant,  as  far  as  we  know,  but 
through  his  work  as  an  engineer  has  discovered  the 
difficulty  of  getting  accurate  results. 

How  Heat  Determinations  Have  Been  Made  More 
Reliable. 

Almost  any  one  of  the  calorimeters  on  the  market 
to-day  will  give  reliable  results  if  sufficient  care  is  used 
in  their  operation.  The  extreme  care  and  the  precau- 
tions necessary  in  their  operation  make  them  unreliable 
in  the  hands  of  an  inexperienced  operator,  and  imprac- 
tical for  commercial  purposes  where  it  is  as  important 
to  keep  down  the  time  consumed  in  testing  (and  thus 
the  cost)  as  it  is  to  have  thoroughly  reliable  results. 

The  Fuel  Engineering  Company,  long  ago,  real- 
ized the  importance  of  this,  problem,  and  after  extensive 
experiments  were  conducted  over  a  period  of  several 
years  with  thousands  of  coal  samples;  and  a  number  of 
different  calorimeter  designs,  an  instrument  was  built 
which  is  both  reliable  and  free  from  the  usual  chances 
of  error.  This  instrument  is  manufactured  in  the  com- 
pany's own  shop  for  its  exclusive  use.  The  U.  S.  Bu- 
reau of  Mines  has  also  recognized  this  need,  and  now 

44 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

uses  calorimeters  designed  and  built  by  its  own  organi- 
zation. Some  persons,  evidently  desiring  to  impose  upon 
the  uninitiated  and  for  the  purpose  of  inspiring  con- 
fidence in  their  calorimeter  determinations,  advertise 
that  their  calorimeters  are  "U.  S.  Government  Stand- 
ard." There  is  no  such  instrument,  unless  it  be  con- 
sidered one  of  those  which  are  in  actual  use  by  the 
Government,  which  cannot,  manifestly,  be  in  the  hands 
of  a  private  individual.  And  even  if  such  a  thing  were 
possible,  it  would  have  little  meaning,  for  the  op- 
eration of  the  instrument  is  so  very  important.  You 
would  hardly  choose  a  surgeon  whose  sole  qualification 
was  the  possession  of  a  fine  set  of  instruments. 


45 


THE          COST         OF         POWER 


PART    III 


How  Volatile  Matter  Indicates  the  Kind  of  Coal. 

Before  passing  on  to  a  translation  of  coal  terms 
into  money  terms,  we  should  understand  the  kinds 
of  coal  as  contrasted  with  the  varying  quality  of  coal. 
Volatile  matter  was  briefly  described  earlier  in  this 
volume  as  that  part  of  the  coal  which  is  driven  off  in 
the  form  of  gas  when  the  coal  is  subjected  to  heat. 
This  is  the  part  of  the  coal  that  makes  smoke,  and  in 
its  improper  combustion  lies  the  secret  of  many  power 
plant  losses.  In  its  composition  lies  the  explanation  of 
variations  of  heating  value  between  two  coals  of  the 
same  ash  content.  The  commercial  coal  test  gives  only 
the  quantity  of  volatile,  for  an  ultimate  analysis  show- 
ing its  composition  is  a  slow  and  expensive  thing  to 
make — too  costly  and  of  too  little  commercial  signifi- 
cance to  be  of  value  to  the  plant  manager.  We  there- 
fore will  discuss  volatile  chiefly  from  the  point,  of  view 
of  quantity,  its  composition  being  treated  only  in  gen- 
eral terms. 


How  Coal  Is  Scientifically  Classified. 

Many  authorities  have  suggested  methods  of  scien- 
tifically classifying  coals.  Practically  all  of  the  sug- 
gested methods  have  depended  upon  the  volatile  in  some 

40 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

way.     For  commercial  purposes  the  following  divisions 
have  been  pretty  generally  accepted. 

Anthracite       ...      up  to  8  per  cent.  Volatile 
Semi-Anthracite       .         8  per  cent,  to  12  per  cent.  Volatile 
Semi- Bituminous      .     «12  per  cent,  to  25  per  cent.  Volatile 
•Bituminous  (Eastern)     25  per  cent,  to  40  per  cent  Volatile 
•Middle  Western  Bituminous  runs  even  higher  than  40  per  cent,  in  some 


This  classification  includes  the  three  great  classes 
of  coal  used  by  power  plants.  The  semi-anthracite  is 
included  to  explain  the  gap  that  would  otherwise  exist 
between  the  anthracite  and  semi-bituminous,  although 
coal  of  this  character  is  comparatively  rare.  This  is 
not  as  arbitrary  a  subdivision  as  it  may  appear  at 
first  glance,  for  it  has  been  found  that  the  heating 
value  of  coal,  free  from  ash  and  moisture,  varies  with 
the  character  of  the  coal  and  helps  to  define  the  limits 
of  this  classification.  In  the  coal  trade  the  term  bi- 
tuminous is  often  used  to  include  both  bituminous  and 
semi-bituminous  coals,  and  therefore  care  should  be 
taken  to  determine  exactly  what  is  meant  when  the 
term  bituminous  is  used. 

How  Heat  Values  of  Different  Classes  of  Goals  Com- 
pare. 

On  the  basis  of  the  same  percentage  of  ash,  the  heat 
values  of  the  coals  listed  above  rise  as  the  volatile 
increases  until  it  reaches  about  25  per  cent.,  and  then 
become  lower  in  the  higher  volatile  coals  which  go  to 
make  up  the  strictly  bituminous  class.  Thus  the  com- 
bustible portion  of  bituminous  and  anthracite  overlap 
in  their  limits  of  heat  value.  It  should  be  understood 
that  this  is  a  general  classification  which  is  sufficient  for 
commercial  purposes.  These  limits  can  be  more  clearly 


THE 


COST 


O   F 


POWER 


defined  only  with  additional  data  beyond  that  sup- 
plied by  the  commercial  coal  test.  The  figures  given 
on  page  41  for  the  purpose  of  demonstrating  the  neces- 
sity of  the  calorimeter  determinations  will  now  have 
greater  significance,  and  those  on  normal  coals  are 
repeated  here: 

Anthracite  .  .  10  per  cent.  Ash  From  13,050  to  13,810  B.T.U.Dry 
Semi-Bituminous  10  per  cent.  Ash  From  13,950  to  14,350  B.T.U.Dry 
Bituminous  .  .  10  per  cent.  Ash  From  13,500  to  14,000  B.T.U.Dry 

What  Is  Shown  by  Typical  Tests  of  Three  Important 
Classes. 

Let  us  examine  a  little  further  typical  tests  of  the 
three  important  classes: 


Anthracite 

Semi-Bituminous 

Bituminous 

Ash 

10% 

10% 

10% 

Volatile  .... 
Fixed  Carbon 

7% 
83% 

17% 
73% 

27% 
63% 

B.T.U.  Dry      .     . 

100% 
13,800 

100% 
14,250 

100% 
14,000 

Assuming,  as  we  have,  that  the  ash  remains  con- 
stant as  the  volatile  percentage  increases,  the  amount 
of  fixed  carbon  must  become  less.  Carbon  is  uniform 
in  heat  value,  and  for  the  purposes  of  this  discussion 
it  may  be  taken  as  14,500  B.T.U.  per  pound.  Sub- 
tracting the  proper  B.T.U.  for  the  respective  percent- 
ages of  fixed  carbon  above  leaves  the  amount  of  heat 
value  due  to  the  volatile,  thus: 


43 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 


Anthracite 

Semi- 
Bituminous 

Bituminous 

B4T.U.  per  Ib.  of  Coal       .     .     .,    .     . 

13,800 

14,250 

14,000 

B.T.U.  of  Carbon     

12,035 

10,585 

9,135 

B  T  U  from  Volatile 

1  765 

3  665 

4865 

B.T.U.  per  Ib.  of  Volatile      .... 
Per  cent  of  Volatile     .     .          ... 

25,214 

7% 

21,559 

17% 

18,018 

27% 

Per  cent,  of  total  heat  from  Volatile 

13% 

26% 

35% 

To  get  the  heat  value  of  the  volatile  in  the  dif- 
ferent types  of  coal  on  a  comparable  basis,  the  amount 
that  a  pound  of  volatile  will  produce  has  been  calcu- 
lated. A  glance  at  this  item  above  will  show  that  as 
the  amount  of  volatile  increases,  its  heat  value  per 
pound  becomes  less.  The  reason  is  that  the  additional 
volatile,  as  we  go  up  in  the  scale,  adds  little  or  nothing 
to  the  total  amount  of  heat-producing  gas.  This  rough 
comparison  is  simply  to  indicate  some  of  the  basic 
differences  in  coal.  The  heat  values  calculated  for  the 
volatile  are  only  true  of  these  particular  samples,  which 
have  been  taken  as  representative  of  types,  but  give 
a  little  indication  of  the  impossibility  of  calculating 
the  heat  value  of  any  coal  without  an  analysis  of  the 
volatile  constituents.  This  is  not  disclosed  by  the  com- 
mercial coal  test.  The  only  way  is  to  obtain  the  heat 
valiue  with  a  reliable  calorimeter  carefully  operated  by 
an  expert. 

Why  the  Amount  of  Volatile  Is  Important  in  Selecting 
the  Kind  of  Coal  to  Burn. 

The  per  cent,  of  the  total  heat  of  the  coal  pro- 
duced by  the  volatile  is  worth  considering.  The  last 
line  of  the  tabulation  shows  that  this  may  be  anywhere 


49 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

from  13  per  cent,  in  anthracite  to  35  per  cent,  in  bi- 
tuminous. Thus  a  very  appreciable  amount  of  the 
heat-producing  power  introduced  under  your  boilers  is 
liberated  in  the  form  of  an  elusive  gas — ready  to  float 
out  the  top  of  your  stack  unless  your  furnace  is  de- 
signed to  mix  and  burn  it  with  a  proper  amount  of 
tiir.  The  coal  must  be  properly  fired,  and  draft  and 
thickness  of  fire  regulated  to  accord  with  the  character 
of  the  coal  and  the  design  of  the  furnace,  or  a  large 
part  of  the  energy  in  the  volatile  will  escape. 

A  plant  should  be  designed  for  the  particular  kind 
of  coal  which  is  most  economical  at  a  given  point.  Un- 
fortunately, most  plants  have  been  built  with  little 
regard  to  this  factor,  and  so  the  problem  is  to  suit  the 
coal  to  the  plant,  and  then  teach  the  firemen  to  use 
it  to  the  best  advantage.  Sometimes  local  conditions 
make  it  necessary  to  burn  the  lower  volatile  coals,  for 
they  are  easier  to  burn  without  dense  smoke,  and  this, 
of  course,  must  be  considered.  At  some  points  small 
sizes  of  anthracite  are  more  economical  than  semi- 
bituminous;  under  some  conditions  it  is  advisable  to 
mix  the  two;  or  a  low  grade  bituminous  coal  may  be 
the  thing.  Thus  we  have  another  element  to  consider 
in  selecting  coal — its  character — fully  as  important  as 
the  question  of  quality  of  coal  obtainable  or  the  relia- 
bility of  the  dealer. 

How  the  Classes  of  Coal  are  Further  Subdivided 
After  Mining. 

We  have  seen  how  coal  is  divided  into  certain  broad 
classes  based  upon  its  natural  characteristics.  Some 
coal,  after  mining,  is  shipped  to  market  containing 
lumps  and  fine  coal,  just  as  it  happened  to  come  out 

SO 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

of  the  mine,  while  at  other  mines  the  coal  is  passed 
over  a  series  of  screens  to  separate  the  lumps  of  cer- 
tain sizes.  Thus  we  get  such  terms  as  Screened  Lump, 
Run-oj-Mme,  Slack.  These  terms  apply  to  bituminous 
and  semi-bituminous  coals. 

Anthracite  coal  has  an  elaborate  system  of  sizes 
from  Broken  or  Grate,  made  up  of  lumps  about  four 
inches  in  diameter,  down  through  Egg,  Stove,  Chestnut, 
Pea,  No.  1  Buckwheat,  No.  2  Buckwheat  (Rice)  to  No. 
3  Buckwheat  (Barley),  which  is  made  up  of  particles 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  across.  The  Grate,  Egg, 
Stove  and  Chestnut  sizes  are  known  as  domestic  sizes 
and  their  use  is  almost  entirely  limited  to  stoves  and 
house  heaters.  They  produce  the  chief  revenue  of  the 
anthracite  mines.  The  smaller  sizes  were  long  consid- 
ered useless,  and  great  culm  banks  grew  up  at  the 
mines  until  the  coal  shortage  at  the  time  of  the  great 
coal  strike  of  1901  aroused  wider  interest  in  the  use 
of  this  small  coal.  Furnaces  were  designed  to  use  this 
small  coal,  and  since  then  millions  of  tons  have  been 
shipped  from  these  culm  banks  for  steam  purposes. 

These  small  or  steam  sizes  are  the  by-product  of 
the  breakers  which  crush  the  coal  to  the  larger  domestic 
sizes.  The  supply  of  the  steam  sizes  will  gradually 
become  smaller  as  the  culm  banks  are  exhausted  until 
finally  there  will  only  be  the  annual  output,  and  about 
10  per  cent,  of  this  will  be  used  in  operating  the  mines. 
The  demand  for  anthracite  in  localities  with  strict  smoke 
regulations  will  probably  force  up  the  price  beyond 
its  power  value  as  compared  with  semi-bituminous  and 
bituminous  coals,  until  the  larger  coal  users  within  our 
metropolitan  districts  wake  up  to  the  fact  that  these,, 
latter  coals  can  be  used  without  causmg  smoke. 

Si 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 


nn 


D 


PEA  No.  1  BUCK  No.  2  BUCK        No.  3  BUCK 

This  illustrates  the  steam  sizes  of  anthracite.  The  lump  of  coal 
passes  through  a  screen  having  openings  the  size  of  the  outside 
of  the  hollow  square  and  passes  over  a  screen  having  openings 
the  size  "of  the  inside  of  the  hollow  square.  The  inside  of  each 
square  is  the  same  size  as  the  outside  of  the  next  smaller  square. 

Why  the  Size  of  Anthracite  Is  Important. 

Each  of  the  steam  sizes  of  anthracite  sells  at  a  dif- 
ferent price,  each  smaller  size  selling  at  a  lower  price 
although  there  is  no  marked  difference  in  fuel  value 
between  the  various  sizes,  considering  each  class  as  a 
whole.  It  is  therefore  important  to  use  the  smallest 
size  of  anthracite  possible.  Many  plants  now  using  Pea 
or  No.  1  Buckwheat  can  be  equipped  at  a  comparatively 
small  cost  to  burn  No.  2  or  No.  3  Buckwheat,  or  a  mix- 
ture, and  within  a  year  make  a  saving  that  will  more 
than  pay  for  the  alterations.  The  equipment  of  your 
plant  will  determine  which  size  you  must  use,  but  it  is 
important  to  see  that  you  get  the  size  you  have  or- 
dered. For  example,  if  your  plant  must  use  No.  1 
Buckwheat,  it  is  important  to  know  that  you  are  get- 

52 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

ting  it  well  screened  to  size.  If  it  runs  50  per  cent, 
of  smaller  sizes,  you  are  not  only  losing  too  large  a 
part  of  your  coal  through  the  grates  and  probably 
choking  up  your  draft,  but  half  of  the  coal  has  a  mar- 
ket value  of  from  25  to  50  cents  less  a  ton.  The 
screening  test  is  therefore  a  necessary  part  of  a  coal 
test  on  the  steam  sizes  of  anthracite.  No  matter  how 
carefully  the  coal  is  screened,  there  is  likely  to  be  a 
certain  amount  of  the  smaller  sizes  present;  but  this 
should  never  exceed  15  per  cent. 

Why  Sulphur  Is  an  Undesirable  Element  in  Coal. 

Another  quotation  from  the  Government  report 
will  be  found  valuable  in  this  connection: 

"Sulphur  is  an  undesirable  element  in  coal.  It  gen- 
erally occurs  in  combinations  with  iron,  as  iron  pyrites, 
and  in  combination  with  calcium,  as  calcium  sulphate  or 
gypsum.  Pyrites  can  readily  be  recognized  by  its  heavy 
weight2  bright  brass-like  color,  and  crystalline  structure. 
The  calcium  sulphate  occurs  in  small,  thin,  white  flakes, 
more  or  less  transparent.  Of  the  two  sulphur  Com- 
pounds, the  pyrites  is  generally  contained  in  larger 
quantity  in  coal,  and  is  harmful  because  it  increases  the 
tendency  of  the  coal  to  clinker.  The  clinkering  is  es- 
pecially bad  if  the  percentage  of  ash  is  small  in  propor- 
tion to  the  sulphur.  In  such  coals  the  pyrites  and  the 
ash  fuse  together  and  form  a  thin  layer  of  solid  clinker, 
which  effectively  stops  the  passage  of  air  through  the 
grate,  thereby  permitting  the  grate  bars  to  become 
heated  from  the  hot  fuel  bed  just  above.  The  clinker 

53 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

then  melts  down  into  the  spaces  between  the  bars,  and 
the  sulphur  seems  to  combine  with  the  iron  of  the  grate. 
The  heat  warps  the  grate  bars,  and  the  clinker  has  such 
corrosive  action  on  the  hot  iron  that  a  set  of  grate  bars 
is  destroyed  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  When  such 
clinkering  occurs,  any  attempt  to  slice  the  fire  fails, 
and  only  slow  and  very  difficult  cleaning  of  the  fires 
will  remove  the  clinkers." 

Why  Low  Sulphur  Coals  are  Usually  to  be  Preferred. 

From  the  fact  that  the  sulphur  percentage  is  an 
index  of  clinkering  tendencies,  the  generalization  can 
be  made  that  low  sulphur  coals  are  preferable  to  high 
sulphur  coals,  other  things  being  equal.  The  U.  S. 
Government,  at  the  Fuel  Testing  Plant  at  St.  Louis, 
investigated  the  relation  of  sulphur  to  clinker,  and  to 
efficiency.  Two  quotations  from  the  report  of  these 
tests  gwe  the  conclusions  reached  very  clearly: 

"A  curve  through  the  average  efficiency  points 
shows  a  drop  of  5  per  cent.,  with  an  increase  of  5  per 
cent,  in  the  sulphur,  or,  in  other  words,  every  increase 
in  the  per  cent,  of  sulphur  in  dry  coal  decreases  the 
efficiency  in  equal  amount." 

"The  curves  .  .  .  show  that  as  the  per  cent, 
of  clinker  in  the  refuse  increases  the  per  cent,  of  sul- 
phur increases ;  also  that  all  the  highest  values  for  per 
cent,  of  clinker  are  grouped  with  the  higher  value  for  per 
cent,  of  sulphur.  The  low  per  cent,  of  values  for  sul- 
phur are  grouped  with  the  high  values  for  per  cent,  of 
efficiency  and  vice  versa." 

54 


Starting  a  high-temperature   furnace  to  determine   the   fusing  point  of  ash   in 
the  Testing  Plant  of  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company.      (See  page  57.) 


A  corner  in  the  Sulphur  Room  in  the  Testing  Plant  of  the  Fuel  Engineering 

Company.     Determining  sulphur  in  coal  is  the  only  part  of  the  coal  test  of  a 

chemical  nature.     (See  page  53.) 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

How  to  Avoid  Clinker  Troubles. 

The  amount  of  sulphur  in  a  coal  will  not  tell  us 
definitely  whether  that  coal  will  clinker  under  certain 
conditions.  Some  plants  can  burn  a  coal  satisfactor- 
ily which  will  clinker  badly  in  others.  Furthermore, 
of  two  coals  of  about  the  same  per  cent,  of  sulphur  one 
may  cause  clinker  trouble  while  the  other  will  not,  al- 
though both  are  tried  in  the  same  plant  under  identical 
conditions.  Clinkers  are  caused  by  the  melting  of  the 
ash,  and  therefore  in  selecting  a  coal  for  some  plants  we 
ought  to  know  the  melting  point  of  the  ash  in  the  coals 
we  have  to  choose  from.  This  is  determined  by  heating 
a  cone  made  of  the  ash  in  a  special  furnace  so  con- 
structed that  the  cone  can  be  watched.  The  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  cone  melts  is  known  as  the  "fusing 
point,"  and  is  determined  by  a  thermo  electric  pyrom- 
eter. Where  the  requirements  of  a  plant  are  known  in 
this  regard,  much  experiment  with  coals  in  the  plant  can 
be  avoided  by  making  "fusing  point  determinations  in 
advance.  In  line  with  the  collection  of  other  coal  data, 
the  Fuel  Engineering  Company  for  years  has  been  de- 
termining the  fusing  points  for  a  large  number  of  coals 
in  addition  to  the  requirements  of  its  clients,  the*  pur- 
pose being  to  build  up  comprehensive  records  on  this 
point  so  that  many  questions  along  this  line  can  be  an- 
swered for  its  clients  without  delay  or  additional  cost  to 
them. 

How  Systematic  Tests  Simplify  Coal  Troubles. 

Did  you  ever  complam  to  your  engineer  that  he 
was  not  keeping  up  steam,  and  receive  the  answer  that 
the  last  lot  of  coal  was  too  poor?  Did  you  then  c&ll  up 

57 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

the  coal  dealer  and  have  him  insist  that  he  had  delivered 
a  very  fine  coal,  and  just  the  same  that  other  plants  near 
you  were  using  satisfactorily?  And  then  wonder  which 
one  was  right?  No  matter  which  opinion  you  accept 
you  may  be  doing  an  injustice  to  the  other,  and  thereby 
an  injury  to  yourself.  If  you  had  the  test  of  that  coal 
before  you,  you  would  know  positively  whether  it  was 
of  the  same  quality,  or  better  or  worse  than  previous 
shipments.  You  could  settle  that  point  conclusively, 
and  without  any  argument.  But  what  if  the  test  showed 
the  coal  to  be  of  high  grade,  and  your  engineer  reported 
trouble  with  it?  Then  either  the  character  of  coal  you 
have  been  using  has  been  changed  so  that  it  does  not 
meet  your  plant  requirements,  or  there  is  something 
wrong  with  the  way  in  which  it  is  being  used.  Whatever 
the  situation,  the  coal  test  gives  you  a  starting  point, 
indicates  which  way  to  turn  to  locate  the  trouble.  Sup- 
pose you  have  changed  your  coal  because  the  coal  bill 
was  climbing  too  fast.  The  new  coal  gives  you  trouble, 
and  in  desperation  you  go  back  to  the  first  one.  If  you 
had  been  systematically  testing  your  fuel  you  could  have 
discovered  the  reason  for  the  rising  cost  of  power,  and 
before  making  any  change  you  would  have  known  defi- 
nitely the  character  of  coal  to  buy  and  would  have 
avoided  a  costly  experiment. 

How  Often  Should  Coal  Be  Tested? 

Every  consignment  of  coal  you  buy  should  be 
tested.  This  does  not  mean  that  you  need  a  test  for 
every  wagon  load,  or  every  car ;  but  it  does  mean  that 

58 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

all  the  coal  you  buy  should  be  sampled.  A  sample  can 
be  so  taken  that  it  will  fairly  represent  all  the  deliv- 
eries by  wagon  over  a  period  of  a  week,  two  weeks  or  a 
month,,  as  conditions  may  require ;  thus  one  test  will  give 
you  the  average  value  of  all  the  coal  delivered  within  the 
period  selected.  A  similar  plan  can  be  adopted  for  car 
deliveries,  making  one  test  cover  all  the  coal  contained 
in  two,  three  or  five  cars  as  the  case  may  be.  If  the 
coal  is  delivered  in  barges,  usually  one  test  can  be  made 
to  satisfactorily  check  up  the  cargo,  although  in  some 
cases  it  is  advisable  to  make  two  samples  for  each  barge 
load.  In  general,  a  safe  rule  to  apply,  to  keep  a  thor- 
ough check  on  your  coal,  is  that  you  need  at  least  four 
or  five  samples  for  each  1,000  tons.  More  than  this  is 
usually  not  necessary,  except  where  the  consumption  is 
so  small  that  the  tests  would  come  at  too  wide  intervals 
to  furnish  a  thoroughly  continuous  record.  But  no 
matter  how  many  or  how  few  tests  you  have  made,  above 
all  things  be  systematic.  Give  definite  instructions  for 
some  systematic  method  of  taking  samples,  for  if  it  is 
done  only  when  some  one  thinks  of  it,  it  will  surely  be 
neglected,  and  you  will  be  sure  to  miss  sampling  the  lot 
that  you  most  wanted  tested.  Spasmodic  sampling  will 
also  fail  to  give  you  that  definite  basis  of  comparison 
which  you  will  need  so  much  when  the  time  comes  to 
consider  your  next  year's  supply.  Careful  and  syste- 
matic sampling  is  no  burden  whatever.  There  is  always 
some  one  around  a  boiler  plant  who  can  be  entrusted 
with  this  duty  and  who  can  easily  spare  the  small 
amount  of  time  necessary. 

59 


THE          COST          OF         POWER 

How  to  Take  a  Representative  Coal  Sample. 

There  is  nothing  intricate  or  mysterious  about  tak- 
ing a  sample  of  coal.  Good  sampling  can  be  done  by 
any  reasonably  intelligent,  able  bodied  man  if  he  has 
proper  instructions.  Sampling  methods  for  coal,  like 
almost  anything  else,  can  be  and  often  are  refined  to 
such  a  point  that  it  would  take  a  bright  technical  grad- 
uate to  interpret  the  instructions.  Experience  and  a 
knowledge  of  fundamental  principles  mixed  with  a  fair 
share  of  common  sense  on  the  part  of  the  instructor  will 
make  a  good  sampler  out  of  any  man  of  average  intelli- 
gence who  is  willing  to  -follow  instructions.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  in  sampling  a  quantity  of  coal 
the  purpose  is  to  represent  by  a  small  quantity  the 
whole  pile,  or  car,  or  barge  of  coal,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Therefore  one  shovelful  taken  at  random,  or  a  few  hand- 
fuls,  or  a  single  lump,  selected  here  and  there  will  not 
be  representative.  In  taking  a  sample  of  coal,  always 
use  a  shovel  or  scoop  if  no  mechanical  means  are  pro- 
vided. Never  use  the  hands,  for  there  will  be  an  involun- 
tary inclination  to  select  lumps  that  are  either  par- 
ticularly good  looking  or  especially  bad  looking.  Take 
at  least  a  hundred  pounds  (two  hundred  is  better),  re- 
membering that  the  size  of  the  largest  lumps  more  than 
anything  else  affects  the  size  of  the  sample  that  should 
be  taken.  Try  to  get  about  the  same  proportion  of 
lumps  and  fine  coal  in  the  sample  as  there  is  in  the  lot 
of  coal  being  sampled.  The  larger  the  lumps  the  larger 
should  the  sample  be  to  be  representative.  When  this 
gross  sample  has  been  taken,  the  lumps  are  broken  down, 
the  coal  thoroughly  mixed,  and  the  sample  reduced  in 
size  by  successive  quartering  and  mixing.  The  fineness 

60 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

to  which  the  coal  is  pulverized  determines  how  small 
the  sample  may  be  reduced  in  size  and  still  remain  repre- 
sentative; therefore  a  sample  should  never  be  reduced 
below  two  pounds  before  being  put  through  a  grinding 
machine.  It  is  impossible  to  go  into  more  detail  here 
because  specific  sampling  instructions  will  vary  with  the 
amount  of  coal  to  be  sampled,  its  character,  the  method 
of  unloading,  and  the  exact  purpose  for  which  the 
sample  is  taken.  Enough  has  been  said  however  to 
show  some  of  the  basic  principles  in  taking  a  good  coal 
sample. 

How  Good  Sampling  Has  Been  Demonstrated. 

There  is  a  certain  amount  of  variation  throughout 
a  load  of  coal,  and  it  is  therefore  impossible  to  take  a 
sample  upon  which  a  definite  statement  can  be  made 
that  a  ton  of  coal  or  a  car  of  coal  contains  exactly  so 
many  heat  units,  or  exactly  so  many  pounds  of  incom- 
bustible material.  The  only  way  this  could  possibly  be 
determined  would  be  to  test  the  entire  quantity  of  coal 
which  is  manifestly  an  absurdity.  Careful  sampling 
will  give  us  the  result  very  closely,  well  within  the  limits 
of  accuracy  demanded  for  power  plant  and  business  re- 
quirements. It  is  also  true  that  the  slight  variations  in 
sampling  are  as  likely  to  be  on  one  side  as  the  other  of 
a  perfect  sample,  and  there  is  a  tendency  of  these  slight 
variations  to  equalize  themselves  in  a  series  of  samples. 
To  find  out  how  closely  two  sets  of  samples  would 
agree,  two  of  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company's  samplers 
were  sent  to  sample  each  one  of  ten  barges  of  coal  inde- 
pendently. When  the  samples  were  brought  in,  one  was 
marked  No.  1  and  the  other  No.  2  without  regard  to 
which  sampler  took  either  sample.  The  tests  were 

61 


THE 


COST         OF 


POWER 


made,  and  the  results  tabulated  and  averaged.     Here 
are  the  ash  and  sulphur  results  obtained  on  each  test : 


Per  Cent.  Ash 

Per  Cent.  Sulphur 

Serial 

Number 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  1 

No.  2 

1 

8.33 

8.33 

1.14 

1.35 

2 

10.07 

9.32 

1.78 

1.29 

3 

8.80 

8.29 

2.11 

1.88 

4 

8.09 

8.46 

1.64 

1.32 

5 

10.02 

9.87 

1.35 

1.73 

6 

10.02 

10.02 

1.46 

1.41 

7 

8.70 

8.28 

1.28 

.96 

8 

8.36 

8.62 

1.04 

1.14 

9 

8.38 

8.97 

1.33 

1.34 

10 

10.07 

10.63 

2.51 

2.34 

Average  .    . 

9.08 

9.08 

1.56 

1.46 

The  fact  that  the  average  of  the  ash  percentages 
for  each  series  came  out  exactly  the  same  is,  of  course, 
pure  chance;  but  both  sets  of  figures  show  how 
closely  two  sets  of  samples  properly  taken  will  check 
each  other,  and  how  the  slight  variations  offset  each 
other.  These  samples  were  taken  in  the  regular  course 
of  business  for  a  client  of  the  Fuel  Engineering  Com- 
pany, and  the  results  on  each  barge  were  sent  to  the 
client  as  soon  as  run,  the  samples  on  the  different  barges 
being  several  days  and  in  some  cases  weeks  apart. 

How    a   Plant    Manager    Proved   the    Accuracy    of 
Sampling. 

A  certain  plant  manager,  who  incidentally  was  buy- 
ing his  coal  under  specifications,  became  involved  in  a 
discussion  as  to  whether  it  made  any  difference  whether 


62 


BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 


he  had  a  test  for  each  car  of  coal  or  made  a  composite 
sample  of  several  cars.  He  made  up  his  mind  to  test  it 
out  and  see  for  himself.  He  instructed  his  engineer  to 
take  a  sample  from  each  car  separately,  mix  and  quarter 
it  down  to  the  usual  two-pound  sample  for  testing,  and 
then  take  what  was  left  of  the  three  gross  samples,  mix 
them  all  up  together  and  quarter  this  composite  sample 
down  to  a  two-pound  sample.  All  four  samples  were 
then  tested  with  the  following  result: 


Three  cars  sampled  separately 

Average  of 
these  three 
tests 

Results  of 
test  on 
composite 
sample 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

Ash  

11.22% 
17.70% 
71.08% 
2.13% 
13,910 

12.97% 
18.52% 
68.51% 
3.49% 
13,590 

12.67% 
18.12% 
69.21% 

12.29% 

18.11% 
69.60% 
2.66% 
13,720 

12.07% 
18.54% 
69.39% 
2.77% 
13,765 

Volatile  Matter  . 
Fixed  Carbon  . 
Sulphur  .  .  . 
B.T.U.Dry  .  . 

The  man  who  took  these  samples  was  not  an  experi- 
enced sampler,  but  had  learned  how  to  sample  from  in- 
structions that  covered  less  than  half  a  typewritten 
page,  and  had  followed  his  instructions. 

How  the  Testing  Plant  Is  a  Model  of  Accuracy,  Speed 
and  Efficiency. 

The  fact  that  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company's 
plant  is  the  largest  commercial  coal  testing  plant  in  the 
world  has  made  it  possible  in  that  institution  to  divide 
the  testing  work  up  so  that  each  man  becomes  an  ex- 
pert in  his  one  particular  part  of  the  test.  Accuracy 
is  not  only  promoted  by  this  specialization,  but  by  the 
fact  that  the  results  cannot  be  influenced,  even  uncon- 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

sciously,  by  a  knowledge  of  a  part  of  the  results.  For 
example,  the  man  operating  the  calorimeters  has  no  op- 
portunity to  form  any  preconceived  notion  that  his 
results  on  a  particular  sample  should  come  out  high  or 
low,  for  he  neither  knows  the  character  of  the  coal  nor 
what  results  the  ash  and  moisture  department  has  ob- 
tained on  that  sample.  Each  sample  is  entered  under  a 
number  as  soon  as  it  is  received,  and  goes  to  the  testing 
department  with  no  other  identifying  marks,  all  the 
data  being  retained  in  the  office.  By  a  specially  de- 
signed system  of  labels  it  is  made  impossible  to  assign 
the  wrong  number  to  a  test.  Each  part  of  the  test  is 
determined  by  different  men,  and  the  results  turned  in 
to  the  office  separately.  Here  the  different  parts  of  each 
test  are  assembled,  and  the  necessary  computing  done. 
The  quality  of  any  particular  coal  sample  is  of  only 
secondary  importance  at  this  point,  for  the  test  is  first 
examined  for  the  harmonious  interlocking  of  the  various 
elements. 

How  Each  Test  Is  Subjected  to  Closest  Scrutiny. 

In  spite  of  the  specialization  of  equipment  and 
men,  which  makes  accuracy  almost  automatic,  no  re- 
sults are  assumed  to  be  correct  simply  because  the  test- 
ing department  made  them.  There  is,  of  course,  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  the  human  element  that  enters  into  all 
scientific  observations,  but  this  has  been  reduced  by  the 
Fuel  Engineering  Company  to  a  minimum  by  the  im- 
provement of  apparatus  and  equipment.  What  little 
of  this  human  uncertainty  remains,  is  rigidly  guarded 
against  by  careful  inspection  and  comparison  of  re- 
sults; if  any  part  of  the  test  does  not  bear  its  proper 

64 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

relation  to  the  other  parts,  or  shows  even  the  slightest 
evidence  of  being  a  little  different  from  what  experience 
would  indicate  that  it  should  be,  a  check  test  is  ordered. 
Each  test  is  subjected  to  the  same  careful  scrutiny 
before  the  final  O.  K.  releases  it.  This  feature  of  the 
work  protects  the  interests  of  Fuel  Engineering  Com- 
pany clients  and  the  Company's  own  reputation  for  ac- 
curacy, just  as  the  inspection  department  of  a  factory 
insures  the  maintenance  of  standard  quality  of  the 
goods  shipped  to  customers.  No  records  or  notes  are 
permitted  to  remain  in  the  testing  department. 

Why  You  Pay  More  and  Get  Less  by  Making  Your 
Own  Coal  Tests. 

Some  manufacturers  who  have  laboratories  of  their 
own  make  coal  tests.  Perhaps  you  are  one  of  them. 
These  men  in  your  laboratory  are  specialists  in  your 
particular  manufacturing  processes,  and  in  the  materials 
you  use.  Coal  testing  with  them  is  a  side  issue — and  if 
the  truth  were  known,  probably  a  good  deal  of  a  nuis- 
ance and  an  interruption  to  their  regular  work.  If  your 
coal  tests  are  made  as  often  as  they  should  be,  how 
much  is  it  costing  you  for  th#  time  your  men' spend 
on  it?  Did  you  ever  look  into  this  point?  It  would 
be  worth  your  while  to  find  out  how  much  time  your 
men  spend  merely  in  getting  the  apparatus  for  the  coal 
test  in  shape  to  run  the  test.  This  might  give  you  a  clue 
to  the  reason  why  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company's 
specialized  testing  plant  can  turn  out  results  at  less 
cost,  quicker  and  more  reliably  than  you  can  yourself, 
and  besides  give  you  valuable  coal  information  which 
yftir  own  organization  cannot  supply  at  any  cost.  You 

65 


THE          COST         OF         POWER 

may  answer:  "These  coal  tests  do  not  cost  me  any- 
thing because  I  must  maintain  the  laboratory  anyway." 
Can't  your  men  apply  their  time  much  more  to  your 
advantage  on  their  own  special  work?  //  not,  it  is 
time  to  look  into  the  efficiency  of  your  laboratory. 

How  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company  Protects  Its 
Clients. 

And  there  is  another  point  to  consider.  In  case 
of  dispute,  your  own  laboratory  work  is  at  once  under 
the  suspicion  of  bias,  whether  there  is  any  good  ground 
for  such  a  suspicion  or  not.  Isn't  it  better  to  have 
this  important  work  done  by  an  independent  organiza- 
tion whose  very  business  existence  depends  upon  results 
which  can  be  proven  to  be  correct — whose  reputation 
is  worth  a  thousand  times  more  than  the  favor  of  any 
coal  consumer  or  dealer?  In  order  to  doubly  protect 
its  clients,  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company  keeps  on  file 
the  last  10,000  samples  tested,  and  these  samples  are  at 
the  command  of  any  client  for  checking  purposes  under 
certain  regulations  which  will  insure  checking  by  com- 
petent authorities  outside  the  commercial  field  and  so 
removed  from  all  possibility  of  being  swayed  by  self- 
interest. 

How  Test  Reports  are  Mailed  Regularly  the  Day  Fol- 
lowing Receipt  of  Sample — or,  if  Necessary, 
the  Same  Day. 

The  large  amount  of  coal  testing  makes  it  possible 
to  turn  out  complete  reports  in  very  short  time  without 
sacrificing  accuracy  in  the  slightest  degree.  The  subdi- 
vision of  the  testing  work  reduces  the  time  for  the  com- 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

plete  test  to  the  net  time  of  the  longest  single  determi- 
nation; therefore  when  special  occasion  requires  it,  a 
coal  sample  received  up  to  noon  can  be  reported  on  the 
same  day.  It  is  only  occasionally  that  test  reports  are 
really  necessary  in  such  a  short  time,  but  the  Fuel  Engi- 
neering Company  client  knows  that  quick  results  can  be 
obtained  when  the  necessity  does  arise.  Prompt  reports, 
however,  are  always  important,  and  therefore  the  rule 
is  that  all  samples  received  to-day  must  be  reported 
to-morrow. 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 


PART    IV 


How  Coal  Tests  Can  Be  Easily  Read  in  Terms  of 
Money. 

We  have  now  established  the  meaning  of  the  terms 
in  a  coal  test,  a  thing  which  every  business  man  who  is 
a  user  of  coal  should  know.  It  is  not  necessary  for  him 
to  sit  down  and  work  out  for  himself  the  application 
of  these  different  points  to  his  own  plant,  for  the  Fuel 
Engineering  Company's  staff  of  specialists  takes  that 
burden  from  him.  The  significance  of  each  part  of 
the  coal  test  has  been  explained  in  detail  so  that 
you  will  understand  the  basic  principles.  There  is 
another  step  of  equal  importance  to  the  test  itself, 
and  that  is  the  financial  significance  of  the  figures 
of  coal  variations  already  given.  Coal  is  bought  to  pro- 
duce hezt,  but  the  coal  bill  must  be  measured  in  dollars. 
Before  proceeding  with  coal  values  in  terms  of  money, 
one  point  should  be  made  clear.  The  coal  which  will 
produce  the  largest  amount  of  heat  for  a  dollar  is  not 
necessarily  the  most  economical  coal  to  use  in  a  given 
plant.  For  the  sake  of  simplicity,  one  thing  must  be 
discussed  at  a  time;  so  for  the  time  being  the  intricate 
problem  of  coal  selection  will  not  be  considered,  and  for 
the  present  all  coal  will  be  assumed  to  be  equally  well 
adapted  to  the  plant. 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

How  the  Value  of  Coal  Is  Computed. 

There  are  two  commonly  used  methods  of  compar- 
ing coal  values.  One  is  to  compute  the  cost  of  1,000,- 
000  B.T.U.,  and  the  other  to  figure  the  number  of 
B.T.U.  obtained  for  one  cent.  It  is  obvious  that  with 
coals  of  different  heat  value,  and  at  different  prices,  we 
must  have  some  way  of  combining  the  two  variables  into 
one  figure  for  comparison.  To  obtain  the  cost  of  a  mill- 
ion heat  units,  it  is  simply  necessary  to  multiply  the 
B.T.U.  per  pound  by  the  number  of  pounds  in  a  ton, 
and  divide  the  price  per  ton  expressed  as  cents  by  the 
number  of  million  B.T.U.  The  figure  known  as  the 
"B.T.U.  Net  for  lc."  was  introduced  some  years  ago 
by  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company,  and  has  been  used 
successfully  ever  since.  This  figure  is  not  exactly  the 
reverse  of  the  "cost  per  1,000,000  B.T.U.,"  for  it  also 
takes  into  consideration  the  cost  of  removing  the  ash. 
This  added  variable  does  not  change  the  result  to  any 
great  extent,  but  it  brings  the  results  nearer  to  a  true 
•value  for  comparative  purposes;  for  the  higher  the  ash 
percentage  is  the  lower  will  be  the  probable  furnace  ef- 
ficiency. Another  advantage  is  that  when  two  coals, 
having  nearly  the  same  heat  value,  are  compared,  the 
one  which  produces  the  given  heat  with  smaller  amount 
of  ash  has  slightly  the  better  of  it.  The  difference  in 
method  is  not  great,  however,  and  need  not  be  discussed 
here  at  length;  for  all  value  comparisons  which  follow 
the  B.T.U.  Net  for  Ic.  will  be  used  as  the  basis. 
It  should  be  understood  clearly  that  from  the  results 
of  a  test  no  ooe  can  fix  an  absolute  value  for  any  given 

69 


THE 


COST 


O  F 


POWER 


coal.  All  results  are  relative.  We  cannot  say  that  a 
certain  coal  at  a  given  point  is  worth  $2.50  a  ton, 
but  it  can  be  definitely  calculated  that  it  is  worth  $2.50 
as  compared  with  another  coal  which  is  offered  at  $2.60. 

How  Coal  Tests  are  Translated  Into  Money. 

If  this  method  is  applied  to  the  tests  previously 
given  to  illustrate  the  variations  in  quality  of  No.  1 
Buckwheat  (page  27),  we  find  the  greatest  difference 
within  one  month  is  $1.35  a  ton,  using  as  the  standard 
the  average  of  about  5,000  deliveries,  at  an  assumed 
price  of  $3.50.  The  smallest  difference  in  value,  from 
highest  to  lowest,  within  one  month  is  65  cents  a  ton. 
To  repeat  all  of  the  figures  for  the  two  years  would 
become  tedious,  for  the  reader  is  already  familiar  with 
the  possible  variations  in  quality;  but  a  few  of  the  fig- 
ures are  given  below,  with  the  B.T.U.  added,  as  well 
as  the  money  value  based  on  the  standard  stated  above. 


Month 

Ash 

B.T.U.Dry 

Comparative 
Value 

Difference  in 
Value 
Per  Ton 

February,  1912    .     . 

10.18 

13,675 

#3.95 

28.42 

10,605 

2.96 

$0.99 

May,  1912  .... 

11.83 

13,235 

3.81 

23.93 

11,205 

3.16 

.65 

February,  1913    .     . 

10.20 
33.38 

13,590 
9,420 

3.92 
2.58 

1.34 

June,  1913  .... 

6.32 

13,950 

4.05 

31.85 

9,795 

2.70 

1.35 

October,  1913  .    .    . 

10.64 

13,360 

3.85 

26.06 

10,845 

3.04 

.81 

70 


BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 


Why  Many  Coal  Losses  are  Not  Discovered. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  before  that  it  is  unlikely 
that  any  one  purchaser  would  get  all  of  the  best  or  all 
of  the  worst,  but  some  figures  on  the  coal  actually  de- 
livered to  two  neighboring  plants  will  show  the  difference 
in  value  that  may  be  present  in  actual  practice.  The 
figures  below  are  averages  of  tests  made  systematically 
throughout  a  year.  For  comparative  purposes,  the 
price  which  plant  A  paid  is  given,  and  the  relative  value 
of  the  coal  delivered  to  plant  B  is  calculated  from  it. 


Ash 

B.T.U.Dry 

Comparative  Value 

Plant  A  .... 
Plant  B  .     .     .     . 

14.04 
18.62 

12,757 

12,000 

$3.50 
3.27 

Here  is  a  difference  in  value  of  23  cents  a  ton  for 
the  average  quality  throughout  a  year.  The  coal  that 
plant  B  was  using  would  not  make  any  particular 
trouble,  and  no  complaints  would  probably  be  heard 
from  the  boiler  room.  With  no  tests,  or  even  with  tests 
and  with  no  basis  for  comparison,  the  manager  of  Plant 
B  might  easily  have  gone  on  buying  this  coal  at  the 
$3.50  price  and  never  know  that  he  could  do  better; 
yet  here  was  a  difference  of  $230  for  every  1,000  tons 
shoveled  into  his  bunkers.  With  such  comparative  data 
the  manager  had  the  choice  of  changing  to  the  dealer 
supplying  the  better  coal,  or  of  obtaining  the  poorer 
coal  at  a  price  sufficiently  lower  to  make  it  pay  to  use  it. 
The  purchase  of  coal  under  specifications  will  be  treated 
in  detail  further  on,  but  it  is  fitting  to  mention  here 
that  the  purpose  of  properly  drawn  specifications  is  to 


n 


T  H 


COST         OF         POWER 


make  such  comparisons  automatic,  and  to  insure  the 
maintenance  of  the  standard  throughout  the  year. 

Why  Wide  Differences  in  Money  Value  are  Not  Lim- 
ited to  Any  One  Kind  of  Coal. 

The  example  given  above  is  not  extreme,  by  any 
means,  and  hundreds  of  similar  comparisons  could  be 
taker  from  the  records  on  hundreds  of  plants  contained 
in  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company  library.  Bituminous 
and  semi-bituminous  coal  varies  in  value  even  more  than 
anthracite,  as  a  general  thing,  and  the  problem  is  more 
complicated,  for  there  are  many  more  mines  or  dealers 
from  which  to  choose.  Here  are  averages  of  tests  made 
during  a  year  at  two  plants  using  semi-bituminous  coal. 
They  were  picked  out  at  random,  and  the  better  of  the 
two  coals  is  not  of  exceptionally  high  quality.  There 
is  a  difference  of  31  cents  a  ton,  using  the  quality  of  coal 
delivered  to  Plant  D  at  $3.00  a  ton  as  the  standard  for 
comparison. 


Ash 

B.T.U.Dry 

Comparative  Value 

Plant  C  .     .     .    . 
Plant  D  .     .    .     . 

7.96 
15.42 

14,469 

13,253 

$3.31 
3.00 

The  selection  of  anthracite  coal  is  largely  limited 
to  comparisons  of  value  like  this,  but  when  bituminous 
or  semi-bituminous  coals  are  used  there  are  added  the 
equally  important  considerations  of  adapting  the  coal 
to  the  giant  and  to  the  special  requirements  demanded 


1 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

of  it.  A  disregard  of  these  features  might  easily  in- 
crease the  real  difference  shown  above  to  40  or  50  cents 
a  ton.  Costly  experiments  can  only  be  avoided  by  know- 
ing the  record  of  the  coals  and  shippers  together  with 
a  wide  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  efficient  use  of 
coal,  and  a  study  of  the  conditions  at  the  particular 
plant  in  question. 

How  the  Cost  of  Transportation  From  Different  Fields 
is  an  Important  Factor  in  Selecting  the  Most 
Economical  Coal  to  Use. 

As  the  cost  of  transportation  rises,  it  becomes  in- 
creasingly important  to  secure  a  coal  of  uniformly  high 
quality.  The  freight  rates  from  different  coal  fields  of 
course  are  affected  by  the  geographical  locations  of  the 
plant  and  mines.  Therefore,  taking  into  consideration  a 
fair  average  figure  for  the  heat  value  of  coals  from  the 
various  fields  the  freight  rates  will  determine  the  class 
of  coal  most  economical  to  use,  plant  conditions  permit- 
ting. Take,  for  example,  the  relative  value  of  No.  2 
Buck,  No.  3  Buck  and  semi-bituminous,  based  on  the 
average  of  several  thousand  tests  of  each  kind.  Taking 
representative  prices  during  April,  1914,  at  tidewater 
New  York,  the  figures  show  that  No.  3  Buck  at  $1.70 
would  yield  about  147,000  B.T.U.  Net  for  lc.,  while 
No.  2  Buck  at  $2.30  would  yield  110,000,  and  semi- 
bituminous  at  $3.00  only  102,500.  Thus  assuming  that 
the  same  plant  efficiency  could  be  obtained  with  each 
kind,  No.  3  Buck  would  be  33  per  cent,  cheaper  than 
No.  2  Buck,  and  this,  in  turn,  would  be  7  per  cent, 
cheaper  than  semi-bituminous. 

75: 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 


4,00 
3.30 
3.60 


>  3.ZO 


2-80 
Z.60 

S  zj-o 

tQ   220 
\   Z.OO 
/-GO 


- 

N  / 


ME JL  £MG/H££/T/MG  CO  O/^A/f^  *&#*    ^^L  ^  '/* 


ANTHftAC/TC 


This  chart  shows  the  relative  value  of  anthracite  and  semi- 
bituminous  coal  of  average  quality.  For  example,  it  will  be  seen 
that  any  one  of  the  steam  sizes  of  anthracite  of  average  quality 
selling  at  $2.90  per  ton  is  roughly  equal  to  a  semi-bituminous  coal 
of  average  quality  at  $3.51.  The  average  coal  quality  upon  which 
this  chart  is  based  was  determined  from  8,495  tests  of  semi- 
bituminous  and  9,885  tests  of  steam  sizes  of  anthracite,  all  of  which 
were  made  by  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company  of  New  York.  See 
page  opposite  for  a  complete  explanation  of  the  significance  of  thia 
chart. 


76 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

How  the  Location  of  the  Plant  is  an  Important  Factor 
in  Selecting  the  Most  Economical  Goal  to  Use. 

Let  us  follow  this  further.  If  $1.00  a  ton  is  added 
to  the  cost  of  each  kind  for  additional  transportation, 
the  relationship  is  entirely  changed ;  No.  3  Buck  is  now 
only  21  per  cent,  cheaper  than  No.  2  Buck,  while  the 
difference  between  No.  2  Buck  and  semi-bituminous  is 
slight — about  %  of  1  per  cent.  The  infinite  num- 
ber of  possible  combinations  makes  it  impracticable 
to  do  more  than  generalize  on  this  point,  but  the  exam- 
ple above  will  illustrate  how  important  it  is  to  have 
accurate  data  on  the  relative  fuel  values  of  different 
coals.  The  figures  given  above  are  summarized  in  the 
following  table: 


Kind  of  Coal 

Price 

B.T.U.  Net 
for  Ic 

Price 

B.T.U.  Net 

forlc 

No.  3  Buck     .     .     . 

$1.70 

147,000 

$2.70 

94,100 

No.  2  Buck    .    .    . 

2.30 

110,000 

3.30 

77,400 

Semi-  Bituminous     . 

3.00 

102,500 

4.00 

77,200 

It  is  clear  that  in  either  of  these  two  assumed 
cases  No.  3  Buck  is  the  coal  to  use,  because  of  the  wide 
spread  between  its  value  and  the  value  of  its  nearest 
competitor.  If,  for  any  one  of  a  number  of  possible 
reasons,  it  happened  that  a  plant  could  not  use  No.  3 
Buck,  the  final  choice  between  No.  2  Buck  and  semi-bi- 
tuminous would  depend  upon  a  closer  study  of  the 
quality  and  price  of  particular  coals  available  within 
each  group,  as  well  as  a  study  of  the  equipment  and 
operating  conditions  of  the  plant  in  question.  The 
chart  which  is  shown  on  the  opposite  page  will  be  found 


77 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

useful  in  making  a  rough  comparison  of  the  relative 
value  of  the  steam  sizes  of  anthracite  and  semi-bitumi- 
nous. For  example,  the  chart  shows  that  any  one  of  the 
steam  sizes  of  anthracite  of  average  quality  selling  at 
$2.90  per  ton  is  roughly  equal  to  a  semi-bituminous 
coal  of  average  quality  at  $3.51.  This  does  not  mean, 
however,  that  it  would  pay  to  use  No.  2  Buck  at  $2.90 
as  against  a  semi-bituminous  coal  of  average  quality  at 
$3.51,  for  as  a  general  thing  the  small  sizes  of  anthra- 
cite will  not  give  as  high  furnace  and  boiler  efficiency 
as  can  be  obtained  with  a  semi-bituminous  or  bituminous 
coal.  The  amount  of  this  difference  depends  upon  the 
individual  plant,  and  will  modify  the  figures  obtained 
by  the  chart  to  that  extent.  The  possibility  of  the  an- 
thracite or  semi-bituminous  in  any  particular  case  being 
above  or  below  an  average  quality  will  further  modify 
the  figures  also.  There  is  always  the  further  possibility, 
advisable  under  some  conditions,  of  mixing  a  small  size 
of  anthracite  with  a  soft  coal. 

Why  Accurate  Coal  Quality  Reports  are  Necessary 
for  the  Operating  Department. 

The  value  of  the  coal  test  in  distinguishing  between 
classes  of  coals,  in  selecting  the  most  economical  kind, 
and  in  choosing  the  best  coal  for  the  money  within  a 
given  class,  in  other  words,  the  value  of  the  coal  test 
from  the  purchasing  angle  covers  only  a  part  of  its 
usefulness  to  the  power  plant  owner.  To  buy  the  larg- 
est amount  of  heat  producing  power  for  a  dollar  is 
only  half  the  problem,  for  the  coal  buyer  must  turn  his 
coal  into  power;  there  are  many  chances  of  loss  between 
the  coal  bunker  and  delivered  power.  The  possible  losses 

78 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

of  this  kind  and  their  prevention  will  be  discussed  in 
detail  at  another  place,  but  it  is  worth  while  to  recall, 
at  this  point,  that  the  coal  test  is  a  vital  part  of  the 
operating  department's  records. 

The  statement  that  the  plant  is  evaporating  so 
many  pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  coal  means  nothing 
unless  the  quality  of  the  coal  used  is  known.  For  exam- 
ple, an  equivalent  evaporation  of  8  pounds  of  water  per 
pound  of  coal,  may  mean  anything  from  70  per  cent,  to 
50  per  cent,  efficiency,  depending  upon  the  heat  value 
of  the  coal  used.  Losses  due  to  the  purchase  of  in- 
ferior coal,  or  the  wrong  kind  of  coal  can  be  prevented 
by  proper  supervision  of  the  quality  and  kind  of  coal 
delivered — the  records  used  in  buying  must  be  used  by 
the  operating  department  if  the  losses  occurring  after 
the  coal  has  been  delivered  are  to  be  discovered  and 
reduced.  Efficiency  is  the  relation  of  the  output  of 
energy  to  the  input.  The  efficiency  of  furnace  and 
boiler  is  that  proportion  of  energy  in  the  coal  fired 
which  is  actually  transferred  to  the  water  in  the  boiler. 
It  is  obvious  that  we  cannot  determine  how  efficient  a 
plant  is  unless  we  know  how  much  energy  there  was  to 
start  with ;  consequently  the  coal  test  is  the  foundation 
of  every  determination  of  power  plant  efficiency.  *  Tests 
made  to  assist  the  buying  department  therefore  should 
always  be  placed  freely  at  the  disposal  of  the  engineer 
in  charge  of  the  operation  of  the  plant. 

Why  Greater  Efficiency  Does  Not  Always  Mean  Lower 
Cost. 

Efficiency,  economy,  capacity — these  three  terms 
are  often  confounded,  resulting  usually  in  loss  to  a  plant 

79 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

manager  who  does  not  clearly  distinguish  between  them. 
In  many  plants  there  is  a  constant  struggle  to  increase 
the  efficiency  of  a  power  plant,  to  reduce  the  proportion 
of  heat  supplied  to  it  that  is  lost,  without  realizing  that 
the  result  may  not  be  true  economy.  For  example, 
investigation  of  coal  value  may  disclose  that  it  is  really 
more  economical  to  use  a  certain  coal  which  will  only 
produce  65  per  cent,  boiler  and  furnace  efficiency  than 
to  use  a  higher  priced  coal  from  which  75  per  cent, 
efficiency  can  be  secured.  In  short,  to  reach  true  econ- 
omy in  power  production  we  must  not  stop  with  the 
mechanical  efficiency  of  the  plant,  but  must  go  back  to 
the  efficiency  of  the  dollar.  The  confounding  of  the 
real  meaning  of  efficiency  and  capacity  is  responsible  for 
many  costly  experiments  with  power  plant  equipment. 
Some  special  devices  are  sold  on  the  claim  that  they 
will  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  plant,  when  what  they 
really  do  is  to  make  it  possible  to  burn  more  coal  in 
the  same  equipment  in  a  given  time.  You  get  more 
power  from  the  plant,  you  increase  the  capacity  of  your 
plant,  but  often  at  a  sacrifice  in  efficiency.  It  is  also 
true  that  an  increase  in  capacity,  even  at  a  sacrifice  in 
mechanical  efficiency,  may  make  for  greater  economy  due 
to  a  saving  of  fixed  charges  on  additional  boilers  which 
otherwise  might  have  been  necessary.  Efficiency,  econ- 
omy and  capacity  should  each  be  considered  in  its  true 
meaning  to  reach  the  desired  result — the  right  amount 
of  power,  at  the  right  time,  at  the  least  cost. 

Why  "Evaporation"  Alone  Does  Not  Indicate  Effi- 
ciency. 

Here   is   the    answer:   "Very    frequently   unrelia- 
ble reports  are  made  as  to  the  performance  of  boilers, 

80 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

and  large  indeed  is  the  number  of  false  or  misleading 
statements  of  this  kind.  The  average  layman  accepts 
as  criterion  a  statement  or  determination  of  'water 
evaporated  per  pound  of  coal.'  .  .  .  And  yet  it 
remains  true  that  when  in  some  manner  they  have  ob- 
tained a  single  one  of  the  numerous  evaporation  figures 
from  their  boiler  plant,  they  frequently  imagine  that 
they  know  the  degree  of  economy  with  which  their  boilers 
are  working.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  have  no  such 
knowledge,  even  if  the  determination  is  entirely  correct, 
which  is  seldom  the  case.  For  the  economy  indicated 
by  an  evaporative  result  depends  entirely  upon  the  heat 
value  of  the  fuel.  Thus  an  'equivalent*  evaporation  of  8 
pounds  based  on  dry  coal  will  represent  the  fairly  high 
boiler  and  furnace  efficiency  of  70.5  per  cent,  if  a  pound 
of  the  coal  contains  11,000  heat  units;  but  the  same 
evaporation  with  the  coal  of  14,500  B.T.U.  will  exhibit 
the  poor  efficiency  of  only  53.5  per  cent.,  a  vast  differ- 
ence indeed.  And  so  the  evaporative  result  of  a  boiler 
means  nothing  whatever  as  indicative  of  its  efficiency 
unless  the  heat  value  of  the  fuel  be  taken  into  our  cal- 
culation"* 

*  Preventable  Losses  in  Factory  Power  Plants.  By  David 
Moffat  Myers.  "Engineering  Magazine/'  April,  1914..  Italics 
are  our  own. 


THE          COST         OF         POWER 


PART  V 


How  the  Coal  Test  Plays  an  Important  Part  in  a  Vital 
Business  Problem. 

Much  has  been  said  about  coal  tests  in  the  preced- 
ing pages,  because  it  is  through  these  tests  that  we  as- 
certain exact  differences  in  character,  or  in  quality, 
and  base  definite  conclusions  as  to  the  relative  value  of 
different  lots  of  coal.  The  experienced  engineer  ac- 
customed to  dealing  with  such  problems  uses  the  test 
to  tell  him  whether  a  coal  is  the  particular  kind  that 
he  has  found  to  be  most  economical  to  use  in  a  given 
plant,  and  combines  it  with  other  data  to  discover  how 
efficiently  the  plant  is  using  the  coal.  This  alone,  how- 
ever, is  not  sufficient  to  make  the  coal  test  a  vital  busi- 
ness force — a  real  factor  in  the  conduct  of  a  coal  con- 
sumer's business.  It  is  very  interesting  to  be  able  to 
make  comparisons  of  value  of  coals  accurately,  and  is 
of  more  than  passing  importance  to  know  what  a  coal 
test  means;  but  at  the  same  time  you  probably  have 
said  to  yourself:  "Where  are  the  records  upon  which 
I  can  depend  for  my  information?"  "How  can  I, 
busy  as  I  am  in  running  my  plant,  spare  either  the  time 
or  the  money  to  investigate  all  these  different  kinds  of 
coal,  dig  out  the  records  of  performance  of  all  these 
hundreds  of  different  mining  operations  or  coal  deal- 
ers?" It  is  too  big  a  job,  clearly,  for  any  but  the 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

very  largest  industrial  organizations  even  to  attempt. 
The  ideal  solution  of  the  problem  would  be  for  several 
hundred  coal  users  to  combine  the  results  of  their  coal 
investigations  into  one  central  bureau  where  the  data 
could  be  classified  and  indexed,  so  that  each  one  might 
have  the  benefit  of  the  combined  experience  of  the  others. 
Such  a  plan  for  organizing  the  kind  of  coal  information 
of  importance  to  the  business  man — a  method  of  vital- 
izing coal  data — is  now  in  operation.  It  is  not  only 
ideal,  but  it  has  been  proven  thoroughly  practical,  and 
has  been  fruitful  of  unexpectedly  far-reaching  results 
after  more  than  seven  years  of  building.  The  test  of 
years  of  service  rendered  to  the  coal  users  participating 
in  the  plan  has  demonstrated  its  value  by  the  saving 
of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars. 

What  Is  This  Central  Bureau  of  Accurate  Coal  Facts 
for  the  Buyer  of  Coal? 

Back  in  1907,  a  company  was  formed  with  one  new 
idea  as  its  sole  claim  to  distinction.  This  company  is 
the  Fuel  Engineering  Company  of  New  York.  The  new 
idea  was  to  build  up  a  central  bureau  of  information 
to  supply  to  coal  users  every  kind  of  data  relating  to 
coal  and  its  use.  To  do  this  several  other  things  were 
necessary.  A  reliable  and  efficient  testing  department 
was  the  first  essential  so  that  all  the  data  collected  could 
be  depended  upon  implicitly,  and  a  thorough  system  of 
indexing  had  to  be  devised  to  make  any  particular  fact 
immediately  available  no  matter  how  large  the  library 
of  records  grew.  The  co-operation  of  a  large  number 
of  coal  users  had  to  be  obtained  to  make  the  records 
really  comprehensive  within  a  reasonable  length  of  time. 
To  obtain  this  coTOperation  on.  a  large  spale  it  was 

83.. 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

necessary  to  create  an  organization  along  new  lines, 
capable  of  supplying  a  service  both  accurate  and 
prompt,  and,  equally  important,  at  a  cost  which  would 
bear  a  relatively  low  ratio  to  the  cost  of  coal.  All  this 
is  now  an  accomplished  fact,  and  to-day  the  Fuel  Engi- 
neering Company  library  contains  more  than  40,000 
tests  of  coal  delivered  to  its  clients.  The  amount  of 
coal  represented  by  these  tests  would  fill  a  solid  train 
of  40-ton  coal  cars  extending  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco. 

How  the  Fuel  Engineering   Company  Records  are 
Collected. 

These  records  are  not  only  unique  because  of  their 
size  and  wide  application,  but  they  stand  out  as  the 
product  of  co-operation  of  the  coal  users  themselves — 
the  men  who  buy  coal  to  produce  power.  The  Fuel 
Engineering  Company  has  never  sought  the  business  of 
the  man  who  occasionally  wants  a  Sample  of  coal 
tested,  for  such  business  means  nothing  more  than  the 
operation  of  a  coal  testing  plant,  and  contributes  noth- 
ing to  what  many  consider  the  most  valuable  part  of 
the  Fuel  Engineering  Company  Service.  The  company's 
coal  testing  plant  is  operated  primarily  for  the  benefit 
of  coal  users  who  join  m  the  plan  under  certain  con- 
ditions, the  chief  one  being  that  for  each  sample  tested 
for  them  the  dealer's  name  and  name  of  coal  (if  known) 
will  be  furnished.  Thus  each  client  furnishes  a  small 
amount  of  information,  which  is  in  no  way  detrimental 
to  his  interests  to  divulge,  and  receives  in  return  the 
use  of  all  of  the  information  of  like  kind  supplied  by 
the  large  number  of  other  coal  Users. 

84 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

How  to  Secure  Information  From  This  Confidential 
Library  of  Records. 

The  use  of  this  great  library  of  coal  information  is 
absolutely  restricted  to  those  who  agree  to  do  their 
small  part  in  constantly  adding  to  it.  Furthermore,  it 
is  not  even  necessary  for  the  client  to  come  and  dig 
out  his  own  information ;  a  request  by  mail  or  telephone 
will  put  trained  Fuel  Engineering  Company  investiga- 
tors on  the  trail  of  the  desired  information  immediately. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  use  of  the  valuable  records  must 
be  limited  further  to  coal  consumers  who  are  willing 
to  agree  to  furnish  a  certain  amount  of  information 
(or  in  other  words  will  agree  to  have  a  certain  number 
of  coal  tests  made  each  year)  ;  also,  to  a  certain  extent, 
the  permanency  of  the  relations  between  the  client  and 
the  company  must  be  assured.  Were  this  not  insisted 
upon,  it  would  be  possible  for  a  coal  user  to  test  out 
one  or  two  samples  and  then  demand  a  report  based 
on  these  records,  although  he  had  added  almost  nothing 
to  the  common  fund  of  information.  This  plan  also 
makes  it  possible  to  estimate  quite  accurately  the  size 
of  the  organization  needed  to  supply  the  service,  and 
thus  help  to  keep  the  cost  of  supplying  the  service,  down 
to  a  minimum. 

How  the  Record  of  a  Particular  Coal  or  Coal  Dealer 
Can  be  Found  in  Less  Than  a  Minute. 

So  thoroughly  has  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company's 
system  of  indexing  been  worked  out  that  the  record  of 
any  particular  coal  dealer  or  miner  can  be  found  al- 
most instantly  in  the  midst  of  this  really  tremendous 
mass  of  coal  information.  The  answer  to  a  coal  gues- 

86 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

tion  does  not  have  to  be  worked  out  after  you  ask  it. 
The  work  of  indexing  and  classifying  every  bit  of  coal 
data  obtained  goes  on  constantly,  so  that  when  you  want 
some  particular  information  it  will  be  found  in  its  place 
waiting  for  some  one  to  use  it.  Starting  with  the  name 
of  the  dealer  or  miner,  the  name  of  the  coals  he  sells 
can  be  found;  this  leads  direct  to  the  information  on 
the  character  and  quality  of  the  coal.  Or  you  can 
start  with  the  name  of  a  coal,  find  its  characteristics 
and  then  turn  at  once  to  the  dealer  or  miner  who 
furnishes  it  and  ascertain  his  record  of  reliability,  per- 
haps something  about  his  attitude  toward  his  customers, 
the  annual  production  of  his  mines,  whether  he  has  bid 
on  specifications,  etc.  If  you  wish  you  can  select  a  cer- 
tain county  or  district,  and  pick  out  the  names  of  the 
miners  in  the  district,  or  the  names  of  dealers  supplying 
coal  of  a  particular  character.  It  makes  no  difference 
from  what  angle  of  your  coal  problem  you  start,  these 
records  automatically  lead  you  direct  to  the  desired  in- 
formation. As  a  time  saver,  a  money  saver  and  a  trou- 
ble saver  this  system  of  records  is  invaluable  to  the  coal 
user;  this  is  especially  so  when  it  is  considered  as  the 
foundation  of  a  complete  Coal  Service,  an  organization 
of  specialists  at  your  command  for  advice  and  counsel. 

How  the  Records  are  Used  by  Coal  Consumers  to  Save 
Money. 

When  the  time  comes  around  for  determining  upon 
next  year's  coal  supply,  the  coal  consumer,  fortified  with 
Fuel  Engineering  Company  records,  has  no  fear  of 
costly  experiments.  Too  often  are  coal  contracts  re- 
newed for  no  better  reason  than  that  the  coal  has  kept 
the  plant  running,  and  the  buyer  fears  to  try  a  change 

86 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

because  it  will  be  a  pure  gamble  whether  he  happens  to 
choose  a  better  or  poorer  coal.  It  is  only  natural  to 
hesitate  to  make  a  change  under  such  conditions  of 
uncertainty — it  is  perhaps  wisdom  to  let  well  enough 
alone.  The  best  information  he  can  get  is  the  optimistic 
statement  of  a  coal  salesman,  or  perhaps  a  few  tests 
selected  for  sales  purposes.  The  salesman  is  not  an 
engineer  nor  has  he  made  a  careful  study  of  the  buyer's 
plant,  but  even  if  he  were  a  trained  engineer  and  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  the  plant,  how  much  of  a  chance 
is  there  that  he  would  ever  recommend  the  use  of  some 
coal  he  was  not  selling?  Though  he  may  be  as  honest 
as  the  day  is  long,  his  sole  interest  is  to  sell  his  own  coal, 
and  he  will  bring  into  play  all  the  resources  of  an  able 
salesman  to  persuade  you  to  buy  it.  Contrast  with 
this  situation  the  methods  of  a  client  of  the  Fuel  Engi- 
neering Company,  which  does  not  buy  or  sell  coal,  and 
has  no  interest,  however  remote,  in  the  sale  of  any  coal. 
This  company  sells  nothing  but  its  services,  and  the 
members  of  its  staff  have  only  one  interest — to  see  that 
you  select,  buy  and  use  your  coal,  in  the  most  economi- 
cal manner.  The  records  which  this  organization  has 
at  its  command  to  aid  it  in  solving  your  problems  make 
those  of  any  single  manufacturing  plant  or  coal  dealer 
seem  insignificant. 

How  These  Records  Help  the  Coal  Buyer  to  Reach  the 
Correct  Decision. 

Mr.  Jones,  a  client  of  some  years*  standing,  writes: 
"We  are  now  ready  to  take  up  the  question  of  our  coal 
supply  for  next  year.  Will  you  please  send  us  a  list 
of  coals,  and  dealers  selling  them,  so  that  we  can  obtain 
prices?"  Mr.  Jones  knows  that  his  requirements  have 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

been  studied  long  since,  and  that  the  exact  character 
of  coal  best  suited  to  those  requirements  is  well  known 
to  our  organization.  It  is  a  simple  matter,  therefore, 
to  select  from  the  list  of  coals  of  this  character  those 
which  have  a  demonstrated  record  of  uniform  quality, 
and  the  dealers  who  are  best  able  to  handle  his  busi- 
ness, eliminating  those  who  have  been  unfair  or  unrelia- 
ble in  their  dealings  with  other  clients.  Mr.  Jones  gets 
the  boiled-down  list  by  return  mail,  and  obtains  com- 
petitive bids.  He  is  able  to  take  advantage  of  competi- 
tive conditions  because  he  has  no  fear  of  experiment, 
knowing  that  his  final  selection  will  be  based  upon  the 
actual  past  performance  of  the  coals  under  considera- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  if  his  present  dealer  can  make 
an  offer  which  is  demonstrated  to  be  the  best  of  the  lot, 
he  has  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  it  is  still  the 
best  coal  for  him  to  buy.  The  bids  received  are  sub- 
mitted to  the  Fuel  Engineering  Company,  the  prices 
are  carefully  compared  with  the  quality  of  the  coal  of- 
fered, and  a  report  is  made  from  which  Mr.  Jones  can 
quickly  and  easily  make  Ms  decision, 

How  it  is  Easy  to  Settle  Each  Coal  Question  as  it 
Arises,  Conclusively  and  Promptly-— if  You 
Have  the  Facts. 

Every  coal  consumer  receives  during  the  year  many 
requests  to  consider  this  or  that  coal.  Many  clients 
settle  each  one  of  these  offers  as  it  comes  up.  Here  is 
a  typical  letter  from  a  client  who  uses  the  service  in  this 
way: 

"The  John  Smith  Coal  Company  has  offered 

108  its  coal  called  'Red  River9  at  $3.05  per  ton. 

88 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

Please  let  us  know  what  your  records  show  on  the 
quality  of  this  coal,  whether  it  is  the  kind  of  coal 
adapted  to  our  conditions,  and  how  it  compares  in 
value  with  the  coal  we  are  now  using." 

Return  mail  would  bring  a  report  in  this  form : 
"The  'Red  River'  coal  sold  by  The  John  Smith 
Coal  Company  has  proven  of  very  uniform  quality, 
running  low  in  ash  and  sulphur.  The  character  of 
this  coal  is  the  same  as  the  coal  you  are  using,  but 
the  price  asked  for  it  is  too  high  to  make  it  more 
economical  than  your  present  coal.  The  average  of 
tests  on  128  deliveries  is  as  follows : 

Ash 7.41% 

Sulphur      1.12% 

Volatile       . 20.32% 

B.T.U. 14,482 

Based  upon  this  average  you  would  have  to  buy 
this  coal  at  $2.95  to  do  as  well  as  you  are  doing.'* 

The  particular  coal  offered  might  have  been  ill- 
adapted  to  this  plant  for  any  one  of  a  dozen  reasons,  or 
it  might  have  been  an  offer  which  the  owner  could  not 
afford  to  let  slip.  In  either  case,  it  was  important  to 
be  able  to  come  to  some  definite  conclusion,  based  on 
established  facts,  and  to  do  it  promptly. 

How  You   Can  Find  Unexpected  Sources   of   Coal 
Supply. 

Some  coal  users  say :  "It  is  no  use  to  try  to  adopt 
scientific  methods  because  I  am  dependent  upon  one 
dealer  and  one  kind  of  coal."  But  are  you  sure  that 
you  really  are  so  limited?  Certainly  it  is  worth  while 
to  investigate  this  point  thoroughly,  and  find  some  other 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

source  of  supply  if  it  is  humanly  possible.  There  is  no 
better  way  to  run  this  point  down  than  to  enlist  the 
resources  of  this  extensive  system  of  coal  records  and 
trained  investigators  who  are  accustomed  to  settling 
just  such  problems.  A  large  brewery  in  one  of  the 
larger  Eastern  cities  took  Fuel  Engineering  Company 
Service  for  this  very  reason.  They  felt  that  their  con- 
dition was  hopeless,  and  needed  outside  assistance. 
Their  problem  was  solved,  and  quickly  too,  with  the  re- 
sult that  they  saved  90  cents  a  ton  on  more  than  10,000 
tons  of  coal.  And  if  you  are  really  limited  to  one  source 
of  supply  under  present  conditions,  it  is  possible  that  the 
conditions  can  be  changed.  Assuming  that  your  dealer  is 
doing  the  very  best  he  can  for  you,  that  he  even  takes 
a  philanthropic  interest  in  the  success  of  your  business, 
is  it  good  business  policy  to  place  the  power  of  control- 
ling such  a  vital  part  of  your  business  in  the  hands  of 
another  who  has  no  responsibility  for  your  profits?  As 
a  matter  of  protection,  whether  you  change  your  dealer 
or  not,  you  should  certainly  find  a  secondary  or  reserve 
supply  to  draw  upon. 

How  This  Bureau  of  Coal  Information  Meets  Your 

Emergencies. 

Events  which  interfere  with  or  cut  off  the  coal  sup- 
ply of  a  plant  usually  occur  unexpectedly.  When  they 
do  occur,  quick  and  decisive  action  is  necessary  to  avoid 
great  loss,  for  it  is  no  small  matter  to  shut  down  a 
plant  because  of  lack  of  fuel.  A  strike,  a  flood,  or 
a  blizzard  may  suddenly  cut  off  the  customary  source 
of  supply,  and  at  such  times  one  little  hint  or  sugges- 
tion may  be  worth  thousands  of  dollars.  For  example, 
a  Jargevplant  in  northern  New -York  State  suddenly 

SO, 


Library  of  Records — The  original  records  of  more  than  40,000  coal  tests  are 
protected  against  loss  in  this  way  in  the  vaults  of  the  Fuel  Engineering 
Company.  (See  page  83.) 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

found  itself  without  coal  because  the  dealer  with  whom 
it  had  contracted  was  tied  up  by  a  shortage  of  cars. 
A  force  of  men  was  put  to  work  cutting  wood  to  keep 
the  plant  in  operation,  and  a  telegram  went  to  the  Fuel 
Engineering  Company  to  find  some  coal  en  route  that 
could  be  purchased  and  diverted  to  them.  By  knowing 
where  to  turn,  and  by  being  located  at  a  great  coal 
market,  we  were  able  inside  of  two  hours  to  locate  ten 
cars  of  coal  and  start  them  on  their  way.  Thus  within 
a  few  hours  and  at  a  cost  of  a  short  telegram  this  plant 
accomplished  what  a  plant  without  the  facilities  of  this 
organization  at  its  command  could  not  have  accom- 
plished without  days  of  negotiation,  if  at  all. 

Another  large  plant  in  New  York  City  had  a  con- 
tract for  a  particular  coal  which  had  been  selected  with 
great  care  to  meet  certain  conditions.  It  was  vitally 
important  to  keep  the  plant  running  twenty-four  hours 
a  day,  and  only  a  limited  number  of  coals  could  be 
depended  upon  to  do  this.  A  local  strike  cut  off  the 
supply  of  the  regular  coal,  and  a  quick  decision  had  to 
be  made.  A  telephone  call  obtained  from  the  Fuel  En- 
gineering Company  a  list  of  the  coals  which  would  be 
suitable,  and  the  manager  of  this  plant  was  able  to 
make  arrangements  immediately  for  the  delivery  of  one 
of  them,  knowing  in  advance  that  it  would  meet  his  pe- 
culiar requirements. 

How  One  Manufacturer  Saved  the  Cost  of  a  Year's 
Service  by  Asking  One  Question. 

A  New  England  manufacturer,  at  a  time  when  a 
general  suspension  in  the  coal  fields  was  being  talked 
of,  wrote  that  he  was  seriously  considering  the  pur- 
chase of  fifteen  cars  of  coal  which  had  been  offered  to 

93 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

him,  as  a  reserve  in  case  of  a  tie-up,  and  asked  for  an 
opinion  on  the  matter  based  upon  a  sample  of  the  coal 
that  he  was  forwarding.  The  reply  that  went  to  him 
contained  the  information  that  this  coal  was  worth  fully 
30  cents  a  ton  less  than  the  coal  he  was  regularly 
using,  and  was  not  adapted  to  his  conditions  at  all. 
He  was  further  advised  that  a  general  strike  in  the 
coal  fields  was  extremely  unlikely.  His  regular  coal 
supply  was  not  interrupted,  as  a  matter  of  fact ;  he  did 
not  buy  the  coal,  and  an  expensive  experiment  was 
avoided.  Emergencies  like  these  can  seldom  be  fore- 
seen;  you  may  be  fortunate  enough  to  avoid  such  a 
situation,  but  it  is  good  insurance  to  have  the  resources 
of  an  organization  such  as  the  Fuel  Engineering  Com- 
pany at  your  command,  especially  as  it  goes  along 
with  a  complete  service  which  gives  you  protection  -from 
coal  mine  to  delivered  power. 

How  Current  Additions  to  the  Records  are  Placed  on 
Your  Desk  Each  Month  Through  a  Loose-Leaf 
System  of  Printed  Monthly  Reports. 

A  large  amount  of  coal  data  is  furnished  to  each 
client  regularly  through  a  system  of  confidential  re- 
ports, compiled  in  loose-leaf  form.  Toward  the  end 
of  each  month,  all  of  the  tests  made  for  all  of  the  plants 
participating  in  the  co-operative  plan  are  compiled  and 
printed.  Strict  measures  are  taken  to  guard  against  a 
single  copy  of  one  of  these  reports  getting  into  the  hands 
of  any  person  not  participating  in  the  plan,  and  these 
reports  are  furnished  under  the  express  agreement  that 
they  are  to  be  used  only  by  the  recipient.  The  report 
gives  for  each  test  the  name  of  the  plant,  the  name  of 
the  dealer,  the  kind  and  trade  name  of  the  coal,  and 

94 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

the  test  result.  The  price  paid,  or  any  other  confi- 
dential information,  of  course,  is  not  included  in  this 
report.  Each  report  is  punched  for  insertion  in  a 
loose-leaf  cover  furnished  for  the  purpose,  so  that  each 
client  has  in  convenient  form  for  reference  a  large 
amount  of  valuable  data  on  the  quality  of  various  coals. 
Regarding  these  reports,  a  large  lighting  company 
wrote  to  another  coal  user: 

"The  report  furnished  by  the  Fuel  Engineer- 
ing Company  each  month  on  all  the  coal  tested 
during  that  period  is  a  very  complete  record.  It 
covers  all  grades  of  coal,  and  is  alone  worth  the 
yearly  price  charged  for  the  service.  We  have 
several  times  referred  to  the  report  on  certain 
grades  of  coal  when  a  representative  of  that  coal 
has  stated  that  he  would  guarantee  the  B.T.U., 
etc.  It  showed  up  the  facts  so  that  the  repre- 
sentative would  not  stand  by  his  statement." 

Why  Now  Is  the  Time  to  Make  the  Big  Savings  by 
Scientific  Methods  in  Goal  Buying. 

It  is  an  established  law  that  the  price  of  a  product 
is  controlled  by  the  relation  of  demand  to  supply.  This 
is,  of  course,  also  true  of  different  grades  of  a  product. 
At  the  present  time  only  a  very  small  proportion  of 
the  coal  used  is  selected  and  purchased  scientifically. 
There  are  thousands  of  kinds  and  grades  of  coal,  but 
so  little  is  known  by  coal  buyers  generally  about  coal 
values  that  the  prevailing  prices  of  the  various  coals  in 
innumerable  cases  bear  no  relation  to  the  real  value. 
Now  is  the  time  to  dig  deeper  into  this  subject,  to 
get  the  real  facts  and  take  advantage  of  these  discrep- 
vn  value  which  are  not  seen  by  the  guess-work 

95 


THE          COST          OF          POWER 

buyer,  whose  rule  of  thumb  methods  are  really  making 
these  opportunities.  When  scientific  coal  selection  and 
purchase  becomes  universal,  or  nearly  so,  intelligent  de- 
mand will  adjust  prices  and  bring  them  into  their 
proper  relationship.  Then,  thoroughly  scientific  meth- 
ods will  be  an  absolute  necessity,  but  chiefly  as  a  means 
of  protection,  although  there  will  still  remain  the  op- 
portunity of  seeking  out  certain  general  classes  of 
coals  for  which  there  is  a  relatively  small  demand,  and 
adjusting  the  plant  to  use  this  kind.  The  most  suc- 
cessful trader  in  any  market  is  the  man  who  gets  below 
the  surface,  and  gets  at  the  real  -facts  before  they  be- 
come public  knowledge. 

Why  Specifications  are  the  Clincher  of  the  Coal  Pur- 
chase Problem. 

Buying  coal  on'  specifications,  often  called  the 
B.T.U.  basis,  has  been  generally  considered  to  be  all 
that  is  necessary  to  put  the  selection  and  purchase  of 
coal  on  a  thoroughly  scientific  basis.  It  has  been  much 
discussed  in  print  as  the  essence  of  fuel  economy.  You 
have  already  read  of  the  possibilities  of  the  proper 
use  of  coal  records  and  coal  tests.  You  have  seen 
what  they  mean  and  how  they  work.  What  can  a 
form  of  coal  contract  do  to  improve  methjods  of  coal 
selection  and  purchase  based  upon  such  accurate  data 
and  complete  records?  It  will  make  certain  that  a 
stated  quality  and  character  of  coal  will  be  delivered 
throughout  the  life  of  the  contract  at  a  standard  price; 
but  if  the  seller  delivers  better  or  poorer  coal  than  he 
has  agreed  he  will  be  paid  in  proportion.  Specifications 
therefore  are  not  the  foundation  of  scientific  coal  pur- 
chase, but  the  finishing  touch — the  clincher. 

96 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

How  Specifications  Secure  Lower  Prices  for  the  Buyer. 

The  other  thing  that  specification  buying  does — 
that  is  buying  under  specifications  that  protect  the 
seller  as  well  as  the  purchaser,  which  is  only  fair — is 
almost  invariably  to  obtain  prices  lower  than  under 
the  so-much-a-ton  method.  This  is  a  curious  effect 
which  many  will  claim  to  be  without  reason,  although  it 
has  been  found  to  be  a  fact  in  a  large  number  of  cases. 
The  reason  lies  partly  in  the  fact  that  properly  drawn 
specifications  will  increase  competition  by  placing  coals 
of  varying  degrees  of  heat  value  on  an  equal  basis,  for 
all  bids  are  reduced  to  a  comparable  basis — the  amount 
of  heat  delivered  for  one  cent.  The  other  reason  is 
more  intangible,  but  perhaps  no  less  real.  The  premium 
that  is  ordinarily  put  upon  salesmanship,  the  effect  of 
persuasion,  is  eliminated.  The  bidder  under  such  speci- 
fications knows  that  the  success  of  his  bid  depends  en- 
tirely upon  cold-blooded  figures.  Put  a  salesman  of 
any  product  in  a  position  where  he  cannot  "talk  his 
goods,"  and  limit  him  to  the  bare  statement  of  facts-- 
just what  he  is  ready  to  guarantee  his  goods  are,  and 
the  price — then  watch  him  sharpen  his  pencil,  or  with- 
draw from  the  field  with  what  grace  he  can.  If  the 
latter,  he  is  either  too  poor  a  business  man  to  be  able 
to  put  his  product  on  a  pure  business  basis,  or  he 
lacks  confidence  in  the  goods.  The  prospective  pur- 
chaser has  lost  nothing  by  his  withdrawal.  He  has 
gained  the  benefit  of  genuine  competition  and  protec- 
tion— the  knowledge  that  he  will  get,  throughout  the 
term  of  the  contract,  just  what  has  been  offered  to  him. 

97 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

Why  Specifications  Do  Not  Depend  Upon  Penalties 
or  Price  Reductions  For  Their  Value. 

It  should  not  be  thought  that  penalties  exacted  for 
poor  coal  under  any  specifications  are  the  full  measure 
of  the  value  of  the  method.  Primarily  the  method  is 
intended  to  supply  an  incentive  to  the  dealer  to  main- 
tain the  standard  of  quality,  or  improve  upon  it  if 
possible.  Providing  a  fair  standard  has  been  set,  the 
purchaser  will  find  greater  economy  if  the  coal  earns 
a  higher  price  than  the  standard,  for  the  poorer  the 
quality  of  the  coal  the  poorer  will  be  his  operating 
results  in  proportion.  But  a  fair  standard  is  a  neces- 
sity to  the  satisfactory  use  of  specifications ;  a  standard 
too  low  will  mean  premiums  paid  for  coal  of  only  average 
quality.  Much  dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  the  deal- 
ers has  been  caused  by  reckless  bidding,  offers  which 
were  unreasonably  high,  or  by  the  insistence  on  the 
part  of  the  purchaser  of  a  standard  which  could  not 
be  reached.  The  failure  of  many  amateur  experiments 
with  specifications  is  due  to  ignorance  of  the  impor- 
tance of  a  correct  standard.  It  is  this  very  feature 
that  makes  a  wide  knowledge  of  coal  values  essential 
to  a  satisfactory  use  of  specifications. 

What  the  United  States  Government  Bureau  of  Mines 
Advises  in  Bulletin  41. 

"Under  the  old  plan  of  purchasing  coal,  when  the 
consumer  had  cause  or  thought  he  had  cause  to  find 
fault  with  the  quality  of  the  fuel  he  received,  he  was 
assured  that  it  must  be  good  because,  like  all  the  other 
coal  sent  him,  it  came  from  a  mine  with  an  established 
reputation.  Such  a  state  of  affairs  made  it  difficult 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

to  take  advantage  of  the  competition  which  usually 
results  from  a  considerable  number  of  bidders  being 
asked  to  submit  prices.  The  purchaser  was  afraid  to 
buy  from  any  dealers  but  those  he  knew  and  trusted, 
because  although  each  dealer  claimed  that  his  coal  was 
equal  in  quality  to  that  of  the  others,  yet  if  it  did  not 
prove  to  be  satisfactory  there  was  no  standard  for  set- 
tlement or  for  cancellation  of  the  contract. 

"Many  thousands  of  dollars  worth  of  coal  is  still 
bought  each  year  in  this  manner,  yet  a  buyer  or  in- 
vestor would  consider  it  absurd  to  make  a  contract  for 
a  building  with  no  specification  other  than  it  should  be 
of  a  certain  size  and  well  constructed.  Neither  would 
he  buy  gold,  silver,  or  even  copper  or  iron  ores  on  the 
mere  information  that  they  were  mined  at  certain  lo- 
calities. All  such  products  are  now  purchased  to  a 
great  extent  according  to  their  value  as  shown  by 
chemical  analysis.  This  is  true  of  coal  in  only  a  small 
degree,  but  the  number  of  coal  contracts  made  on  such 
a  basis  is  increasing  every  year. 

"A  contract  for  purchase  of  coal  under  specifica- 
tions is  as  advantageous  as  a  definite  understanding 
regarding  the  quality  and  other  features  of  any  other 
product,  or  of  a  building  operation  or  an  engineering 
project.  The  man  who  buys  under  specifications  gets 
what  he  pays  for  and  pays  for  what  he  gets." 

Why  Imperfect  Specifications  May  Be  More  Costly 
Than  None. 

The  purpose  of  specifications  for  any  product  is 
primarily  to  protect  the  purchaser,  but  to  be  success- 
ful they  must  also  protect  the  honest  dealer.  It  is  a 
nice  question  to  protect  the  honest  dealer  against  trick- 

99 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

ery  or  incompetence  on  the  part  of  the  consumer  with- 
out leaving  loop-holes  by  which  a  dishonorable  dealer 
may  escape  the  provisions  intended  to  protect  the  con- 
sumer. There  may  be  serious  consequences  either  way 
for  the  buyer.  If  the  dealer  is  not  assured  of  a  higher 
price  for  coal  better  than  the  standard  agreed  upon, 
he  will  surely  make  a  bid  high  enough  to  offset  possi- 
ble reductions,  whether  he  expects  them  to  occur  or  not. 
On  the  other  hand  if  the  settlement  price  is  exactly  in 
proportion  to  the  fuel  value  of  the  coal  he  delivers,  he 
can  safely  set  a  -fair  standard  and  a  -fair  price,  depend- 
ing upon  the  fluctuations  above  standard  to  offset  those 
deliveries  which  fall  below.  There  is  sure  to  be  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  variation  at  best,  and  if  his  coal  runs' 
consistently  above  standard  he  is  sure  of  a  correspond- 
ing reward.  If  the  dealer  is  not  protected  against  the 
rejection  of  shipments  without  adequate  reason,  he  will 
insure  himself  against  such  a  possibility  by  making  a 
higher  price,  because  the  rejection  of  a  shipment  is 
often  a  very  severe  penalty.  The  consumer  has  an 
equal  right  to  protection,  and  good  business  practice 
demands  this  protection,  no  matter  how  much  confidence 
the  buyer  may  have  in  the  other  contracting  party. 
A  contract  between  friends  should  be  as  binding  as  one 
between  total  strangers.  It  is  not  difficult  for  one 
inexperienced  in  the  art  of  drawing  coal  specifications 
to  eliminate  unwittingly  an  important  class  of  possible 
bidders,  or  even  actually  to  put  a  premium  on  the  de- 
livery of  poor  coal. 

How  Coal  Specifications  Have  Been  Proven  a  Success. 
It  is  not  easy  to  draw  coal  specifications.    Proba- 
bly more  discussion  and  argument  has  centered  on  coal 

100 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

specifications  than  on  any  other  part  of  the  complex 
problem  of  getting  the  most  power  out  of  every  dollar 
spent  for  coal.  Of  all  the  phases  of  the  coal  problem 
the  drawing  of  specifications  is  the  most  difficult  to  do 
right,  the  least  understood,  and  the  most  experimented 
with  by  the  inexperienced.  In  principle,  coal  specifi- 
cations are  simple;  in  practice,  the  method  is  full  of 
surprises  for  the  unwary.  Good  specifications,  once 
dratvn,  are  easy  to  understand  and  simple  of  enforce- 
ment. Of  a  hundred  different  specifications,  drawn  by 
individuals  connected  with  industrial  plants,  and  re- 
cently examined,  there  was  not  one  which  did  not  either 
contain  at  least  one  vital  flaw  in  the  protection  in- 
tended for  the  purchaser  or  were  so  unfair  to  the  seller 
that  strict  enforcement  was  impossible. 

This  is  where  Fuel  Engineering  Company  service 
supplies  another  need  of  the  coal  purchaser,  for  the 
wide  and  varied  experience  of  its  staff  with  coals  is 
combined  with  its  many  opportunities  to  watch  closely 
the  operation  of  a  large  number  of  specifications  besides 
those  drawn  by  its  own  organization.  Here  again  the 
experience  of  many  is  focussed  upon  the  problem  of  a 
single  plant.  The  best  evidence  of  the  value  of,  this 
particular  service  is  the  fact  that  not  one  concern  has 
ever  changed  to  another  form  after  once  purchasing 
under  Fuel  Engineering  Company  specifications.  With- 
in a  single  year  more  than  500  bids  have  been  made  on 
these  specifications.  One  client  of  the  Fuel  Engineer- 
ing Company  has  made  a  contract  for  his  coal  supply 
under  these  specifications  for  a  period  of  ten  years,  with 
an  option  of  continuing  them  in  force  for  an  additional 
five  years.  More  than  half  a  million  dollars9  worth 


THE         C  O  S  T         OF         POWER 

of  coal  is  bought  each  year  by  business  concerns  under 
the  Fuel  Engineering  Company  specifications  and  tests. 

How  an  Association  Can  Save  Money  For  Its  Mem- 
bers by  the  Collective  Buying  of  Coal. 
The  collective  purchase  of  any  material  has  cer- 
tain obvious  advantages  over  individual  effort,  providing 
the  material  purchased  can  be  standardized;  and  many 
plans  for  co-operative  buying  have  proven  very  suc- 
cessful, especially  in  Europe.  The  collective  purchase 
of  coal  for  manufacturers  would  seem  to  offer  almost 
insuperable  obstacles.  There  is  likely  to  be  among  the 
members  of  an  association  of  manufacturers  a  wide  di- 
versity in  the  kind  of  coal  needed  for  individual  plants. 
A  plant  manager  also  naturally  hesitates  to  delegate 
any  of  his  authority  in  such  an  important  matter,  and 
he  may  fear  that  his  individual  needs  will  not  get  the 
attention  they  should.  The  problem  therefore  becomes 
one  of  studying  the  requirements  of  each  plant  sepa- 
rately, and  fitting  these  diverse  needs  into  a  plan  which 
will  retain  final  authority  for  each  manufacturer,  and 
at  the  same  time  retain  the  full  value  of  the  collective 
method.  It  is  also  essential  in  such  a  plan  that  each 
member  be  absolutely  protected  and  guaranteed  in  ad- 
vance a  certain  fuel  value  for  his  money.  To  the  solution 
of  such  a  problem  must  be  brought  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  coal  market,  a  thorough  understanding  of 
plant  requirements,  and  extensive  experience  in  adapting 
specifications  to  complex  situations.  Adequate  speci- 
fications under  such  a  plan  are  not  only  desirable,  but 
an  absolute  necessity.  The  staff  of  the  Fuel  Engineer- 
ing Company  is  peculiarly  fitted  for  the  development 
of  stwh  a  plan. 

102 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

What  One  Prominent  Manufacturers'  Association  Says 
About  Collective  Buying. 

Here  is  a  letter  from  a  client  of  the  Fuel  Engi- 
neering Company,  one  of  the  largest  manufacturers' 
associations  in  New  England. 

"The  first  three  months'  operation  of  our 
plan  for  the  collective  purchase  of  coal  for  our 
members  under  strict  heat  unit  specifications  has 
so  well  demonstrated  its  advantage  to  our  members 
that  we  are  prompted  at  this  time  to  write  and 
express  our  thanks  and  appreciation  to  you  for 
your  valuable  assistance  and  help  in  perfecting  this 
plan. 

"We  are  certainly  indebted  to  you  for  the 
large  amount  of  time  and  effort,  backed  by  your 
years  of  experience  as  fuel  engineers,  all  of  which 
you  placed  at  the  disposal  of  this  Association  dur- 
ing the  months  of  our  preparation  for  putting  the 
plan  into  effect,  and  which  has,  we  believe,  resulted 
in  the  adoption  of  a  plan  offering  exceptional  op- 
portunity to  our  members  for  a  saving  in  their 
coal  bill,  and  at  the  same  time  a  guarantee  of  the 
quality  of  the  coal  delivered. 

"We  estimate  that  the  actual  saving  to  our 
members  through  the  operation  of  the  plan  will 
amount  to  a  very  large  figure,  the  price  which  the 
members  are  now  paying  being  ten  cents  per  ton 
lower  than  the  prevailing  market  price,  and  in 
addition  to  this  saving  they  are  also  protected 
with  a  strict  guarantee  of  the  heat  value  of  the 
coal." 


THE          COST          OF          POWER 

How  States  and  Cities  Can  Safeguard  Coal  Purchases. 

Sound  business  management  requires  the  protec- 
tion of  properly  drawn  specifications.  State  and  munic- 
ipal buying  introduces  still  further  advantages  in  this 
method  of  buying  coal;  the  best  interest  of  the  tax- 
payers requires  impartial  expert  supervision  of  pur- 
chases. Properly  drawn  municipal  specifications  pre- 
vent not  only  the  exercise  of  favoritism  in  the  award 
of  contracts,  but  even  the  suspicion  of  favoritism,  for 
all  bids  are  reduced  to  a  definite  and  comparable  basis 
of  value  and  the  determination  of  the  lowest  bidder 
becomes  a  mathematical  calculation.  Our  governmental 
system  brings  frequent  changes  in  the  holders  of  impor- 
tant positions.  Harmonious  and  continuous  adminis- 
tration of  such  an  important  matter  as  coal  buying  is 
impossible  unless  some  outside  organization  is  engaged 
under  conditions  which  make  it  free  from  political 
uncertainty.  Furthermore,  state  and  city  officials  are 
frequently  lawyers,  merchants  or  bankers  in  private  life, 
and  have  not  even  the  experience  which  the  average 
manufacturer  has  acquired  in  coal  buying.  Coal  test- 
ing done  by  State  or  city  departments  is  open  to  a 
very  obvious  objection.  It  is  common  knowledge  that 
such  departments  are  notoriously  open  to  political  in- 
fluence, or  the  influence  of  selfish  private  interests.  The 
Fuel  Engineering  Company  has  successfully  supervised 
the  coal  purchasing  of  State,  county  and  city  depart- 
ments, and  its  extensive  and  valuable  clientele  among1 
industrial  concerns,rdependent  as  it  is  upon  the  mainte- 
nance of  its  professional  reputation,  stands  as  a  con- 
tinuous guaranty  of.  freedom  from  political  or  private 
mfluenca 

104 


BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 


PART    VI 


How  Coal  Is  Turned  Into  Power. 

Money,  coal,  steam,  an  engine,  whirring  machinery 
— your  product.  Before  your  check  in  payment  of  the 
coal  bill  has  left  your  office  every  tangible  thing  that 
your  money  has  bought  has  disappeared.  You  have 
purchased  energy,  and  used  part  of  it  in  changing  the 
form  of  your  raw  materials  into  a  salable  product. 
Part  of  it  has  been  wasted.  You  can  see  the  coal 
shovelled  under  your  boilers;  you  can  see  the  shafts, 
pulleys,  wheels  moving  in  the  factory.  Energy  has  been 
liberated  in  the  furnace  to  go  where  it  can.  It  is  in- 
visible, intangible.  You  have  paid  good  money  for  the 
energy.  Some  of  it  is  sure  to  escape  unused.  Most 
of  it  you  can  use.  Science  has  provided  us  with  means 
of  accurately  determining  just  where  this  energy  goes, 
methods  of  keeping  track  of  it  all  the  time.  Do  you 
realize  that  a  plant  using  5,000  tons  of  coal  at  $3 
per  ton  can  lose  $7,500  dollars  after  the  coal  has  been 
fired  and  before  the  energy  reaches  the  engines?  Do 
you  realize  that  half  of  this  may  be  unnecessary  loss? 
And  once  lost,  gone  forever ! 

How  Power  Losses  Can  Be  Prevented. 

There  is  no  reclaiming  of  power  losses.  They  are 
most  elusive  and  exist  on  every  hand,  but  they  cam,  be 

105 


THE          COST          OF          POWER 

prevented.  A  certain  amount  of  energy  has  been  put 
into  the  plant  in  the  form  of  coal.  It  is  comparatively 
simple  to  measure  the  amount  of  energy  which  is  deliv- 
ered to  your  machinery,  but  this  does  not  tell  you  how 
much  has  been  lost  or  where  the  losses  are.  You  must 
know  how  much  energy  you  started  with.  Therefore, 
we  must  start  with  the  heat  value  of  the  coal,  and  the 
weight  of  the  coal  used.  Let  us  assume  that  your 
coal  has  been  carefully  selected,  and  is  purchased  on 
the  B.T.U.  basis;  that  it  will  give  you  the  largest 
amount  of  energy  in  the  form  most  suitable  for  your 
use  for  the  money;  that,  in  this  particular  case,  you 
will  get  14,000  B.T.U.  per  pound,  or  31,360,000  B.T.U. 
per  ton  for  $3;  and  that  you  use  5,000  tons  a  year. 
Let  us  see  what  may  become  of  this  $15,000  worth  oif 
energy — how  much  may  be  lost — how  much  can  be 
saved. 

How  the  Savings  Disclosed  by  the  Power  Plant  Bal- 
ance Sheet  Mount  Into  Money. 

Every  business  concern  keeps  an  exact  record  of 
all  money  received.  The  books  show  exactly  how  much 
has  been  received,  the  date,  and  whence  it  came.  This 
money  is  in  turn  paid  to  others.  A  record  is  kept  of 
just  where  this  money  goes,  and  for  what  it  was  paid. 
A  part  is  paid  in  salaries,  a  part  in  materials,  and  in 
all  lines  of  business  some  is  lost.  The  income  and  outgo 
must  always  balance,  and  the  general  manager  demands 
a  statement  in  detail  showing  how  the  outgo  was  divided. 

What  business  man  could  hope  to  reduce  costs  if 
he  only  knew  the  total  amount  of  money  spent?  Fur- 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

thermore,  how  much  real  money  does  the  business  execu- 
tive of  to-day  actually  see?  The  morning's  mail  brings 
certain  pieces  of  paper  which  indicate  that  somewhere 
in  the  channels  of  trade  there  are  a  certain  number  of 
dollars  which  have  been  transferred  to  him.  He  has 
faith  that  the  money  is  there,  although  it  is  not  visible. 
He  in  turn  pays  it  out  by  means  of  similar  pieces  of 
paper.  The  laws  of  nature  prescribe  that  every  bit 
of  energy  you  put  into  your  furnace  must  come  out 
somewliere,  even  though  you  cannot  see  this  energy. 


This  chart  illustrates  graphically  the  results  indicated  by  the 
Energy  Account  on  following  page.  The  black  areas  indicate  the 
unnecessary  losses  which  were  eliminated,  while  the  amount  of 
power  produced  remained  the  same. 


107 


THE          COST         OF         POWER 

How  an  Energy  Account  Looks  in  Actual  Figures. 

Science  has  made  it  possible  to  measure  this  energy 
that  you  put  in,  and  also  to  keep  account  of  just 
where  it  goes  and  in  what  quantities.  The  "Energy 
Account"  must  balance  just  as  much  as  your  "Cash 
Account."  You  trade  good  money  (which  is  carefully 
and  painstakingly  accounted  for)  for  energy  in  the 
shape  of  coal.  Doesn't  just  ordinary  good  business 
practice  demand  that  every  bit  of  this  energy  should 
also  be  accounted  for?  Let  us  see  what  the  "Energy 
Account" — the  power  plant  balance  sheet — looks  like: 

To  5,000  tons  of  coal,  averaging  14,000  B.T.U.  per 

pound,  @  $3.00  per  ton $15,000 

Lost  up  the  stack  in  dry  flue  gases  ......  $5,430 

Lost  by  incomplete  combustion None 

Lost  through  grates 870 

Loss  from  moisture  in  coal 375 

Loss  from  hydrogen  in  coal  burning  to  water    .    .         315 
Loss  from  radiation  and  minor  losses 570 

$7,560 
Turned  into  steam 7,440 


Total $15,000        $15.000 

How  This  Same  Energy  Account  Was  Made  to  Save 
Money. 

A  statement  like  this  is  not  only  a  satisfaction, 
but  it  points  the  way  to  a  reduction  of  the  losses.  The 
business  executive  need  not  necessarily  know  the  treat- 
ment indicated  by  these  figures,  but  he  can  readily  see 
the  significance  of  the  facts  when  he  has  faith  that 

108 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

this  energy  account  is  as  real  as  the  cash  account. 
Conditions  were  improved  in  this  plant,  and  the  balance 
sheet  now  looks  like  this: 

To  3,566  tons  of  coal,  averaging  14,000  B.T.U.  per 

pound,  @  $3.00  a  ton $10,700 

Lost  up  the  stack  in  dry  flue  gases $1,720 

Lost  by  incomplete  combustion 162 

Lost  through  grates 481 

Loss  from  moisture  in  coal 267 

Loss  from  hydrogen  in  coal  burning  to  water    .    .  224 

Loss  from  radiation  and  minor  losses 406 


Turned  into  steam 7,440 


Total $10,700       $10,700 

It  shows  the  same  amount  of  power  developed  with 
$4,^00  less  spent  for  coal  of  the  same  quality  at  the 
same  price. 

How  Every  Power  Problem  Is  Different. 

The  "Energy  Account"  of  no  two  plants  will  look 
alike.  The  design  of  the  plant,  the  demands  put  upon 
it,  its  location,  the  method  of  operation,  the  kind  of 
coal — each  of  these  has  an  effect  upon  the  size  of  the 
total  loss,  as  well  as  upon  the  distribution  of  the  losses 
and  the  method  of  reducing  them.  Another  plant 
with  insufficient  stack  capacity  had  a  power  balance 
sheet  like  the  following.  The  figures  are  converted  to 
our  adopted  average  plant  for  sake  of  easy  comparison, 
and  the  figures  before  and  after  the  faulty  condition 
has  been  remedied  are  given  in  parallel  columns: 

ill 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 


Before  After 

To  5000  tons  of  coal,  averaging  14,000 

B.T.U.  per   pound,  @  $3  a  ton       .    .    $15,000 


Lost  up  the  stack  in  dry  flue  gases    . 
Lost  by  incomplete  combustion    .     . 
Lost  through,  grates     

$1,455 
2,295 
480 
315 
345 
1,860 

$1,192 
251 
394 
251 
274 
1,338 

3,700 
8,250 

Loss  from  moisture  in  coal  .... 
Loss  from  hydrogen  in  coal      .     .     . 
Loss  from  radiation  and  minor  losses 

Turned  into  steam 

6,750 
8,250 

Total $15,000  $15,000    $11,950  $11,950 

This  shows  the  same  amount  of  power,  but  more 
than  $3,000  saved  in  the  operating  account. 

Why  the  Energy  Account  Should  Show  the  Losses  For 
365  Days  of  the  Year. 

A  large  number  of  plants  run  tests  to  determine 
the  evaporation  per  pound  of  coal,  but  fail  to  determine 
the  amount  of  heat  originally  supplied  to  the  furnace 
and  thus  cannot  determine  the  losses.  The  real  question 
to  be  answered  is  not  "How  much  water  is  being  evap- 
orated per  pound  of  coal?"  but  "How  much  of  the  en- 
ergy that  we  have  bought  is  wasted?" 

Many  plants  run  occasional  tests  to  give  some 
indication  of  the  amount  of  loss  or  the  distribution  of 
the  losses.  Such  tests,  however,  only  show  what  the 
losses  were  on  one  day  under  test  conditions.  The 
losses  that  eat  up  the  coal  bill  are  going  on  every  day 
of  the  year.  They  may  be  changing  in  direction.  An 
attempt  to  reduce  one  loss,  indicated  by  a  test,  may 
have  increased  one  of  the  others  still  more.  This  loss 
goes  on  until  another  test  is  run,  and  in  the  meantime 

112 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

more  energy  is  lost  than  before.  Fuel  Engineering 
Company  Power  Service  checks  up  all  the  losses  all 
the  time,  and  reports  to  you  the  condition  of  the  En- 
ergy Account  at  frequent  intervals. 

How  to  Open  the  Energy  Account. 

To  open  the  energy  account — to  put  the  plant 
manager  in  a  position  to  know  just  where  the  energy 
that  he  buys  is  going — does  not  require  costly  changes 
in  equipment  or  radical  changes  in  operating  condi- 
tions. It  simply  means  getting  accustomed  to  apply- 
ing the  same  careful  methods  in  the  making  of  power 
as  are  used  in  the  manufacturing  department  or  the 
treasurer's  office.  Until  the  plant  has  been  equipped 
so  that  the  direction  and  amount  of  the  losses  can  be 
determined  and  a  continuous  record  maintained,  at- 
tempts at  power  economy  are  little  better  than  guess- 
work. Lucky  guessing,  or  any  other  method  that  re- 
duces the  cost  of  power,  is  valuable;  but  if  it  does  not 
indicate  how  near  you  are  to  the  goal  of  maximum 
economy,  it  fails  in  its  real  purpose ;  for  it  is  not  what 
you  have  done,  but  what  you  can  do,  that  counts. 
Here  the  power  engineer  has  an  advantage  over  the 
efficiency  engineer,  for  his  100  per  cent,  is  known  and 
every  part  of  it  can  be  definitely  determined,  while 
the  latter  may  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  workmen 
40  per  cent,  without  knowing  how  near  he  is  getting 
to  the  possible  maximum — or,  in  other  words,  how  much 
farther  he  could  go  if  he  knew  how.  The  purpose  of 
Fuel  Engineering  Company  Power  Service  is  to  guide 
you  in  the  introduction  of  an  Energy  Account,  to  keep 
the  account  for  you,  to  analyze  the  results,  and  to  use 
the  facts  disclosed  to  reduce  the  losses  and  to  keep, 
them  down. 

113 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

How  the  Services  of  the  Operating  Engineer  Become 

More  Valuable. 

Scientific  methods  applied  to  power  production  do 
not  diminish  the  importance  of  the  operating  engineer. 
His  duties  are  many  and  important.  In  fact,  they  are 
so  many  and  so  important  that  he  cannot  be  expected 
to  take  up  the  particular  problem  with  the  thorough- 
ness it  deserves  and  must  have  for  complete  success. 
A  quotation  from  an  article  by  an  engineer,  who  has 
had  wide  experience  both  as  an  operating  engineer  and 
as  a  consultant,  is  worth  repeating  here: 

"In  order  to  obtain  the  best  results,  it  is  nec- 
essary for  all  parties  concerned  to  recognize  their 
own  and  the  other  fellow's  limitations  and  organize 
a  working  unit.  On  the  one  hand,  the  supervising 
engineer  must  admit  that  the  operating  engineer 
knows  his  plant  in  detail  more  intimately  than 
others  can.  He  knows  the  individuality  of  his 
machine  better  and  can  best  tell  the  results  of  ap- 
plication of  oils,  packing,  etc.,  and  knows  many 
things  one  cannot  learn  in  any  other  way  than 
to  be  with  them  continually.  The  operating  en- 
gineer must  feel  that  the  consulting  engineer  can 
bring  a  training  due  to  association  with  business 
men  that  is  denied  the  man  in  the  engine  room,  and 
can  bring  to  bear  a  wide  range  of  knowledge  of 
general  practice.  The  consulting  engineer  is  called 
upon  to  consider  problems  so  varied  that  each  one 
is  a  special  study  and  cannot  help  but  give  him 
a  general  knowledge  at  least  of  more  phases  of 
engineering  than  can  be  gained  in  the  engine  room 
alone.  For  one  to  disregard  the  knowledge  of  the 
other  is  foolish.  For  each  to  recognize  that  the 

114 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

other  can  bring  special  knowledge  into  a  working 
combination  for  the  common  employer  means  good 
for  all." — Outside  Supervision  in  the  Plant,  by 
Hubert  E.  Collins,  "Practical  Engineer,"  January 
1,  1914. 

How  the  Coal  Service  Assists  the  Plant  Manager. 

Fuel  Engineering  Company  Coal  Service  is  com- 
plete in  its  application  to  your  power  problem  up  to 
the  delivery  of  the  coal.  It  acts  as  a  searchlight  to 
penetrate  the  depths  of  the  coal  market,  a  market  be- 
wildering in  its  greatness  and  in  the  wide  field  of  choice 
it  offers.  It  acts  as  a  guide  in  making  the  best  choice, 
and  as  a  protector  in  making  sure  that  you  get  all  the 
time  all  you  are  paying  for.  The  Fuel  Engineering 
Company  of  New  York  does  not  buy  or  sell  coal,  or 
any  other  material  or  product.  The  Coal  Service  is 
therefore  a  tool  for  you  to  use.  Its  value  will  depend 
largely  upon  your  desire  to  use  it. 

How  the  Power  Service  Protects  and  Assists  You  at 
Every  Step  From  Mine  to  Delivered  Power. 

The  Power  Service  includes  all  of  the  features  of 
the  Coal  Service;  it  goes  farther  and  covers  the  dis- 
tinct problem  of  getting  the  most  out  of  the  coal  after 
it  has  been  bought,  thus  covering  each  step  from  the 
time  you  think  of  next  year's  coal  supply  until  the 
steam  has  been  delivered  to  your  engines.  This  service 
determines  the  amount  and  direction  of  your  present 
losses,  takes  the  full  responsibility  for  the  reduction 
of  them,  and  maintains  a  complete  and  continuous  rec- 
ord of  operating  results,  which  are  reported  to  you 

115 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

at  frequent  intervals.  The  engineers  in  charge  of  the 
Power  Service  not  only  have  the  full  information  in 
regard  to  the  quality  of  your  coal,  which  is  essential 
to  a  complete  knowledge  of  your  power  losses,  but  have 
access  to  the  great  mass  of  coal  records  in  the  coal 
library  already  described.  This  is  a  unique  feature  of 
this  Power  Service  which  should  not  be  overlooked.  Its 
importance  lies  in  the  value  of  carrying  the  problem 
through  from  start  to  finish  under  the  direction  of  a 
single  organization,  insuring  harmony  of  plan,  and 
avoiding  a  duplication  of  effort  which  a  division  of  the 
problem  would  cause. 

Why  the  Cost  of  Power  Is  a  Big  Business  Problem. 

Economy  in  purchase,  efficiency  in  use — these  are 
two  parts  of  one  vital  business  problem,  the  reduction 
of  the  cost  of  power.  To  buy  coal  haphazard,  to 
judge  of  it  with  incomplete  data,  to  select  it  without 
a  thorough  survey  of  the  field,  to  accept  any  business 
situation  as  being  impossible  of  improvement — truly, 
these  have  no  place  in  the  creed  of  the  American  busi- 
ness executive;  they  mean  the  deliberate  neglect  of  an 
opportunity  to  increase  profits  by  the  most  direct  and 
certain  road — the  decrease  of  costs.  That  such  methods 
have  been  the  rule  in  the  past  is  not  to  the  discredit 
of  any  coal  buyer,  because  this  condition  was  not  due 
to  a  lack  of  desire  to  improve,  but  to  the  absence  of 
opportunity  to  get  the  facts  upon  which  better  methods 
could  be  built. 

For  years  there  has  been  building  a  central  bureau 
of  information  for  the  coal  buyer,  and  an  organization 
equipped  and  trained  to  supply  complete,  exact  and 
detailed  information  on  the  selection  and  purchase  of 

116 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

coal — the  foundation  of  all  power  economy.  To  have 
accomplished  the  greatest  economy  in  purchase,  to  have 
placed  in  your  coal  bunkers  the  largest  amount  of  heat 
in  the  form  most  economical  for  your  use  at  the  least 
cost,  is  a  distinct  step  forward.  This  much  of  the 
power  problem  may  be  considered  as  a  complete  unit 
in  itself. 

After  the  ooal  has  been  delivered,  the  work  of  re- 
ducing the  losses  and  of  keeping  them  down  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  a  complete  solution  of  this  vital 
business  problem,  but  for  its  success  it  must  depend 
upon  the  facts  developed  in  the  solution  of  the  first 
division.  The  service  of  the  Fuel  Engineering  Com- 
pany therefore  is  divided  into  two  parts,  each  a  com- 
plete unit,  the  one  related  to  the  other  as  a  house  is  to 
its  foundation.  The  Coal  Service  may  be  used  alone, 
or  the  Power  Service  may  be  added  to  it,  thus  making 
the  protection  of  your  interests  complete  from  mine  to 
delivered  power. 

Why  You  Need  the  Coal  Service. 

First:  Because  it  gives  you  systematic  tests  of  your 

coal  which 
make  it  possible  to  compare  accurately  its-  value 

with  the  value  of  other  available  coals; 

give  you,  at  frequent  intervals,  definite  informa- 

tion as  to  whether  you  are  getting  the  quality 
of  coal  that  you  have  been  promised; 

are  an  absolute  necessity  to  complete  operating 

records  if  you  would  know  how  efficiently  the 
coal  you  buy  is  being  used. 

Second:  Because  it  places  at  your  command  a  library 
of  coal  information  which 

iir 


THE          COST          OF          POWER 

supplies  a  basis  of  comparison  with  your  present 

practice ; 

guides  you  in  the  selection  of  coals  of  higher  qual- 

ity or  lower  price; 

enables  you  to  find  these  coals  with  a  minimum 

of  effort  or  expense; 

gives  you  accurate  data,  in  advance,  on  coals  you 

may  consider  buying  and  thus  avoids  costly 
experiment. 

Third:  Because  it  adds  to  your  staff  an  organization 
of  experts,  devoting  its  whole  time  to  coal  and 
power  problems,  which 

is  ready  at  all  times  to  give  you  the  benefit  of 

experience  gained  in  supervising  the  purchase 
of  more  than  15,000,000  tons  of  coal  for 
plants  in  more  than  fifty  different  lines  of  in- 
dustry and  operating  under  all  kinds  of  con- 
ditions ; 

relieves  you  of  all  technical  details  by  supplying 

to  you,  as  a  basis  for  your  decisions,  concrete 
recommendations  based  upon  the  tests  of  your 
coal  and  our  library  of  coal  records; 

studies  your  plant  conditions,  and  determines  the 

kind  of  coal  best  adapted  to  the  economical 
production  of  your  power; 

assumes  all  the  detail  work  in  preparing  specifi- 

cations for  the  purchase  of  your  coal,  exam- 
ines all  bids  received,  and  prepares  an  accu- 
rate comparison  of  the  bids  to  guide  you  in 
awarding  the  contract; 

-  stands  constantly  at  your  service  to  look  up  and 

report  any  kind  of  coal  information  you  may 
desire ; 

118 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

makes  suggestions  and  recommendations  on  firing 

methods  and  operating  problems,  which  can  be 
made  without  extensive  investigation  or  in- 
spection of  the  plant. 

Fourth:  Because  it  gives  you  all  of  these  things  quickly, 
and 

at  a  nominal  cost — from  three-fourths  of  one  per 

cent,  to  two  per  cent,  of  your  coal  bill.  The 
total  cost  to  you  is  fixed  in  advance.  There 
are  no  fees  of  indefinite  amount. 

Why  You  Need  the  Power  Service. 
First:  Because  it  gives  you  systematic  supervision  of 
your  power  generation; 

finds  out  what  your  plant  is  doing; 

determines  not  only  the  amount  of  the  losses,  but 

where  they  occur; 

stops  preventable  wastes; 

gives  you  complete  operating  records. 

Second:  Because  it  places  on  your  desk  at  frequent 

intervals  reports  which  show: 

the  exact  cost  of  your  power; 

what  your  plant  has  been  doing; 

what  it  is  now  doing; 

what  it  is  going  to  do. 

Third:  Because  it  adds  to  your  staff  an  organization 
of  experts  devoting  its  whole  time  to  coal  and 
power  problems;  which 

gives  you,  at  all  times,  the  benefit  of  experience 

gained  in  supervising  the  power  output  of 
many  plants ; 

makes  concrete  recommendations  based  on  tests  at 

your  plant  and  extensive  supervision  records ; 
thus  relieving  you  of  all  technical  details; 

119 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

studies   your   plant   conditions    and   welds   your 

plant,  coal  and  men  into  a  harmonious  unit 
devoted  to  the  economical  production  of 
power ; 

assumes   all  detail  work  in  keeping  of  records, 

installing  of  instruments  and  planning  im- 
provements ; 

relieves  you  of  the  necessity  of  spending  your  time 

on  a  lot  of  technical  details  which  are  foreign 
to  your  ordinary  trend  of  thought,  and  so 
gives  you  additional  time  and  energy  to  devote 
to  the  sales-product  end  of  your  business. 
Fourth:  Because  it  gives  you  these  things  quickly  (the 
engineering  staff  is  ready  and  doesn't  have  to 
be  built  up)  ; 

the  cost  is  small  and  in  every  case  it  is  deter- 

mined in  advance; 

furthermore,  the  expenditure  usually  pays  large 

dividends  the  first  year. 

The  Problem  and  Its  Solution. 

We  have  stated  the  problem  and  pointed  out  the 
solution.  We  have  shown  how  hundreds  of  manufac- 
turers and  other  makers  of  power  and  users  of  coal  have 
solved  each  part  of  their  problems.  We  have  shown 
how  you  may  profitably  leave  the  application  of  the 
principles,  here  presented,  to  specialists  who  are 
equipped  to  gather  the  facts  and  able  to  focus  the  com- 
posite experience  of  many  others  upon  your  individual 
needs.  With  confidence  in  your  good  business  judgment, 
we  leave  you  with  this  question: 

ARE  YOU  BURNING  UP  YOUR  PROFITS? 

120 


BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 


REFERENCE   INDEX 

A  Page 

Anthracite,  amount  of  volatile  in 47 

heat  value  of 

moisture  in         39 

sizes  of 50,  51 

sizes,  commercial  importance  of 52 

steam  sizes  compared  with  semi-bituminous  in  terms  of 

money 78 

Ash,  definition  of 23 

only  accurate  means  of  measuring 23 

amount  of,  affected  by  mining  methods 25 

as  an  index  of  quality 26 

fusing  point  of         57 

percentage  in  fourteen  consecutive  deliveries      ....  32 

percentages  in  No.  1  Buckwheat  by  months        ....  27 

B 

Bituminous,  amount  of  volatile  in 47 

heat  value  of 48 

use  of  the  term,  in  coal  trade 47 

B.T.U.,  definition  of 24 

dry 24 

as  received 24 

commercial 25 

B.T.U.,  net  for  Ic,  definition  of 69 

B.T.U.,  difference  of,  in  coals  with  same  ash  percentage       .      41,  42 

difficulty  of  determining  accurately 43 

iii  different  classes  9f  coals  compared        47 

basis,  see  Specifications 

buying 26 

Brass  Foundry          18 

Buckwheat,  No.  1,  ash  percentages  in  fourteen  deliveries   .     .  82 

table  of  ash  percentages  in 27 

differences  in  money  value  of 70,  71 

size  of 52 

Buckwheat,  No.  2,  compared  with  No.  3  Buck  and  semi-bitu- 
minous in  terms  of  money 75 

size  of 52 

Buckwheat,  No.  3,  compared  with  No.  2  Buck  and  semi-bitu- 
minous in  terms  of  money 75 

size  of 52 

Bureau  of  commercial  coal  information 83 

Business  questions  which  must  be  answered        14 

C 

Calorimeter,  necessity  of 41,  42,  49 

reliability  of 44 

Capacity  often  confounded  with  Efficiency  and  Economy       .     .  79 

Carbon,  Fixed,  definition  of 24 

Cement  Mill .18 

Chemical  Analysis         22 

Clinkering,  how  to  avoid 57 

Coal,  Adaptability  of,  to  plant        18 

Anthracite,  heat  value  of 41 

Bituminous,  heat  value  of        41 

121 


THE         COST         OF         POWER 

Page 

character  of 16 

character  of,  indexed  by  dealers 17 

exact  amount  of,  used 18 

exact  value  of 21 

heat  from  a  given  volume  of 18 

kind  and  quality,  difference  between 25 

largest  single  element  in  cost  of  power 14 

los's  in  use  of 105 

higher  quality  of,  obtained  by  specifications        ....  98 

preparation  of,  care  observed  in        15 

quality  of .  16 

quality  and  kind,  difference  between     .......  25 

quality  of  each  kind  of,  indexed        18 

quality  of,  responsibility  for 80 

selection  of         16,  17,  18 

selection  of,   on  impartial  data 28 

semi-bituminous,  value  of 41 

special  uses  of 18 

turned  into  power 105 

value  of  each  lot  of 16 

variations  in  character  of 15 

Coals,  bituminous,  importance  of  ash,  sulphur  and  volatile  in 

selection  of 29 

classification  of,  by  volatile 47 

semi-bituminous,  ash  percentages  in  fourteen  deliveries  32 

semi-bituminous,  comparison  of  fifteen 29 

semi-bituminous,  importance  of  ash,  sulphur  and  volatile 

in  selection  of 29 

record  of 86 

Coal  bill  higher,  due  to  several  causes 18 

costs 18 

data,  exact,  need  of 17 

dealers,  attitude  toward  customers         17 

dealers,  indexed  by  character  of  coal   .......      17 

dealers,  record    of 85 

dealers,  reliability  of 17 

dealers,  selection  of,  on  impartial  data 28 

information,  how  to  secure 85 

market,  thorough  knowledge  of,  necessary 21 

purchase 16,  17,  18 

purchase,  advantages  of  specifications  for  States,  Cities, 

etc 104 

purchase  by  associations 102,  103 

purchase,   economy  in  scientific 115,  116,  117 

purchase,  scientific,  advantages  of,  at  present  time   95,  96,  97 

purchase,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines  on 98,  99 

records,  current  additions  to "     .  94 

records,  how  collected  and  classified 84,  85,  86 

records,  the  use  of 86,  87,  88,  89,  $0,  93 

records,  value  of,  in  emergency 90,  93 

records,  see  also  Bureau  of  Coal  Information. 

seam,    character   of 15,  31 

specifications,  see  Specifications. 

test,  financial  significance  of 68 

test,  use  of,  in  determining  efficiency 79 

test,  its  value  to  operating  engineer 78 

test  of  commercial  use 22 

test,  terms  used  in 22 

tests,  basis  for  comparison  of 16 

tests,  how  often  should,  be  made     ........     58 

tests,  insuring  accuracy  of 04 

122 


A       BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 

Page 

tests  made  a  vital  business  force 82 

tests,  systematic,  the  value  of 57 

testing  plant 17,  63 

testing,  only  the  first  step        16 

testing,  laboratories  in  manufacturing  plants  not  adapted 

to 65 

testing,  value  of  prompt  reports  on 66 

Collective  purchase  of  coal 102,  103 

Collins,  Hubert  E.,  quotation  from 114 

Competition  increased  by  specifications 97 

Co-operation  among  coal  users 88 

Cost  of  riower,  coal  the  largest  single  element  in 14 

A  Dig  business  problem        116 

see  also  under  Power. 

Costs,  manufacturing 17 

D 

Dealers,  coal.    See  under  Coal  Dealers. 


Economy  in  coal  purchase     ..........      115,  116,  117 

in  power  production    ..........      115,  116,  117 

often  confounded  with  Efficiency  and  Capacity       ...      79 
Economy,  Power,  how  to  secure    ...........    113 

Efficiency,  necessity  of  coal  test  in  determining       .....      79 

Efficiency  often  confounded  with  Economy  and  Capacity       .     .      79 
Energy  Account  compared  with  financial  account     .....    106 

illustrated      .............      108,  111,  112 

Engineert  Operating,  becomes  more  valuable        ......    114 

Engineering  Magazine,  quotation  from    .........      80 

Evaporation,  not  an  index  of  efficiency        .......     79,  80 

Experiment,  costly,  avoided       ..........     .     .     28 

F 

Factory  system,  foundation  of        ...........     14  % 

Financial  significance  of  coal  test       ..........     68 

Firing  methods     ................     15,  23 

wasteful    ................     .18 

Fixed  Carbon,  definition  of         ............      24 

Fusing  point  of  ash      .............    ,.     .      57 

6 

Gas  Producing  plants        .............  18 

Guess-work  methods    ...     ............     16 


Heat.     See  under  B.T.U. 

Heat  Value  of  volatile  matter        .     ..........      49 

See  also  under  B.T.U. 
Horse-power,  boiler      ...............     24 

Human  element  in  mining  coal      ..........     80,  32 

I 
1m  Foundry      ....     .............     18 

126 


THE          COST          OF         POWER 


L  Page 

Laboratories  in  manufacturing  plants  not  adapted  to  coal  test- 
ing             ...     65 

Location  of  plant  as  it  affects  selection  of  coal         .     .     .     .     75,  77 
Loss  in  use  of  coal 105 

M 

Manufacturing  costs 17 

Mining  methods,  human  element  in .     30,  32 

Moisture,  added  in  transit 35 

amount  of,  in  coal  as  delivered 39 

changes  with  the  seasons 39 

excess,  loss  to  purchaser  of  coal 35 

importance  of,  in  operating  records 41 

in  coal  when  mined 35 

definition  of        23 

Money,  Value  of  coal  computed  in  terms  of 69,  72 

Municipal  coal  purchase,  advantages  of  specifications  for      .     .  104 

Myers,  pavid  Moffat,  quotation  from 80 

O 

Operating  engineer  becomes  more  valuable 114 

Operating  results,  continuous  record  of 21 

Operating  tests,  occasional 112 

P 

Pea  Coal,  size  of 52 

Power,  cost  of 16,  21 

largest  single  element  in 14 

Power  costs 18 

data,  exact 17 

economical  production  of 17 

economy .       115,  116,  117 

economy,  how  to  secure 113 

from  coal 105 

losses,  prevention  of         105 

losses  reduced  by  power  records 106,  108,  111,  112 

records  for  business  men 106 

waste  in  production  of,  elimination  of 21 

Prices,  Specifications  secure  lower 97 

Protection  of  specifications 97 

"Practical  Engineer,"  quotation  from 114 

Pottery  Manufacturer 18 

Profits,  Burning  up  of 16 

Purchase  of  coal,  see  under  Coal  Purchase. 

Q 

Quality  of  coal,  see  under  Coal  Quality. 


Records,  see  under  Coal  and  Power. 

Refuse,  furnace,  a  source  of  loss ..23 

distinguished  from  ash 23 

Run-of-inine        61 


BIG       BUSINESS       PROBLEM 


S  Page 

Sampling,  of  coal 58,  59 

methods 60 

accuracy  of,  proven 61,  62,  63 

Screened  Lump 51 

Selection  of  coal,  see  under  Coal  Selection. 

Semi-Anthracite,  amount  of  volatile  in 47 

Semi-Bituminous,  amount  of  volatile  in 47 

compared  with    anthracite  in  terms  of  money         ...      73 
compared  with  No.  2  and  No.  3  Buck  in  terms  of  money     75 

differences  in  money  value  of 72 

heat  value  of 48 

Sizes  of  anthracite,  commercial  importance  of 52 

Slack      t 51 

Smelter 18 

Specifications,  advantages  of,  for  States,  Cities,  etc.          ...    104 

collective  purchase  of  coal  under 102,  103 

difficulty  of  protecting  both  sides 100 

fair  standard  in,  is  necessary 98 

increase  competition         97 

obtain  better  coal        98 

one  purpose  of         72 

only  the  finishing  touch 96 

protection  of 97 

reasons  for  dissatisfaction  with 98 

secure  lower  prices 97 

success  of 100,  101,  103 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines  on         98,  99 

Steam  factory 14 

Steam  sizes  of  anthracite 51,  52 

compared  with  semi-bituminous  in  terms  of  money  .      .      78 

Sulphur,  description  of 24,  53 

amount  of,  affected  by  mining  methods 25 

in  semi-bituminous  coals  from  fifteen  mines       ....      29 
its  relation  to  clinkering 53,  54 

T 

Terra  Cotta  Manufacturer 18 

Testing,  see  under  Coal  Testing. 

U 

Ultimate  analysis  of  coal *  .     .      22 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  quotations  from 34,  98 

V 

Value  of  coal  in  terms  of  money,  how  computed 69 

No.   2  Buck,  No.   3  Buck  and  semi-bituminous  compared 

in  terms  of  money 75 

Volatile,  definition  of          23 

amount  of,   in  coal 25,  47 

as  an  indication  of  character  of  coal 26,  46 

composition  of 24,  25 

heat  value  of 49 

importance  of,  in  selecting  coal 29,  50 

W 
Water,  amount  of,  evaporated 18,  79,  80 

126 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN     INITIAL     FINE     OF     25     CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


370133 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


